LastLecture

1. Page 496 Top Down or Bottom Up? Bottom Up Control resources control community N  V  H  P Top Down Control  Predators control the community N  V  H  P Top down control = Trophic Cascade Model Freshwater Pond For Example: Phytoplankton  Zooplankton  Small Fish  Large Fish Remove large fish then small fish increase, zooplankton decreases and phytoplankton increases. Effects will be propagated up and down food chain as a +/-

2. Page 471 Keystone Species • A species that occupies a specific niche that is extremely important in determining community structure. • When that species is removed, the community dramatically changes • Not typically the most common species in a community

3. Pisaster ochraceous (a starfish) • Keystone species in the rocky intertidal communities of western North America. • Is a strong predator for a mussel (Mytilus californianus) • The starfish can not eat large mussels, so the mussels have a size-related refuge from predation • This mussel can out-compete other invertebrates for space, but the starfish takes away that competitive edge. • When the starfish were removed, mussel numbers increased and excluded other invertebrates and algae from attachment sites.

4. Sea Otters • Key Stone Predator in North Pacific • Once extremely abundant, reduced to near extinction in the early 1900’s by the fur trade • Feed heavily on sea urchins and thus can control their populations • Sea urchins feed heavily on macroalgae (kelp) and where sea urchin abundance is high, kelp is basically nonexistent • Where sea urchin abundance is low, kelp is common along with all of the other species associated with it.

5. Case Study • Sea otters have declined (sometimes 25% per year) in Alaska since about 1990, and the kelp beds have begun to disappear as sea urchins increased. • Killer whales are suspected because their prey base (seals, sea-lions) has declined, and their predation on sea otters has increased. • Seals and Sea-lion population declines have been attributed to a decline in their food base (fish). • Fish declines have been attributed to overharvesting in the North Pacific. • So, overharvesting of fish may have led to a cascade of events that were unexpected.

6. Species Area Curves • Species area curve predicts that larger islands will have more species than smaller islands. • S=cAzwhere • S = number of species • c = a constant measuring the number of species per unit area • A = area of island (in square units) • z = a constant measuring the slope of the line relating to S and A

8. Island Biogeography • Number of species (on a plot or island) is a balance between immigration and extinction. • If immigration exceeds extinction, then the number of species will increase. • Number of species usually at equilibrium

9. Island Biogeography • Immigration rates on islands are related to the distance from the mainland. • Close islands have greater immigration rates than far islands • Extinction rates on islands are related to the size of the island. • Extinction rates are greater for small islands than for large islands

10. Island Biogeography

11. Neotropical Migratory Birds • Neotropical = ‘New Tropics’ • New World vs old world • Western Hemisphere • Neotropical birds breed in Canada and the United States during the northern hemisphere’s summer and spends the rest of the year in the tropics. • Defined as a species in which the majority of individuals breed north of the Tropic of Cancer (latitude = 23 degrees north) • About 200 species

12. Migration Distance • Varies across species and within species • Shortest (a few hundred miles) are those birds that breed in the southern US and overwinter in Mexico. • Some of the longest are birds that breed in the arctic tundra in northernmost Canada and winter as far south as the southermost tip of South America • One way mileage = 10,000 • Arctic Tern • Nests as far north as land extends • Overwinters near the south pole • Sees more daylight than any other species • Round trip covers about 22,000 miles.

13. Why Migrate? • They can take advantage of seasonally abundant food supply and avoid times and places that food supply is low. • Flying insects, caterpillars, fruits and nectar are abundant during our spring and summer, but not winter. • Ultimate reason is breeding success. • Can raise more young if they migrate than if they stayed in the tropics. • Abundant protein-rich food, longer daylight hours, more room, possibly fewer predators.

14. When To Migrate? • Internal clock controls the onset of migration and the premigration preparations. • Environmental factors control this clock • Certain changes in a bird’s environment stimulate the production of certain hormones, which leads to changes in behavior and physiology. • Change in day length for example

15. How To Get There? • Short migraters and waterfowl generally learn breeding and wintering locations from older more experienced birds • Often family members • Most long distance migraters are genetically programmed to make the trip. • First migration is completely under genetic control • Subsequent trips may incorporate previous experiences (return each year to good reproductive grounds)

16. Migration Routes • Follow land through Mexico into the United States • Cross the Gulf of Mexico • First/last encountered land important to survival • Rest and refueling

17. Seasonal Habitats • Wintering Grounds • Sufficient food for premigration preparations • Migratory Habitat • Fat reserves, nutrients, vulnerability to predation • Breeding Grounds • Reproductive success

18. Habitat Variety Important • With the diversity of migratory birds, a diversity of habitats is needed in the migratory habitats. • Reduces competition