What externalities are and why they can lead to inefficiency in a market economy and support for government interventio

2. What externalities are and why they can lead to inefficiency in a market economy and support for government intervention • The difference between negative, positive, and network externalities • The importance of the Coase theorem, which explains how private individuals can sometimes solve externalities • Why some government policies to deal with externalities—such as emissions taxes, tradable permits, or Pigouvian subsidies—are efficient, although others, like environmental standards, are inefficient

3. How positive externalities give rise to arguments for industrial policy • Why network externalities are an important feature of high-tech industries

4. The Economics of Pollution • Pollution is a bad thing. Yet most pollution is a side effect of activities that provide us with good things. • Pollution is a side effect of useful activities, so the optimal quantity of pollution isn’t zero. • Then, how much pollution should a societyhave? What are the costs and benefits of pollution?

5. Costs and Benefits of Pollution • The marginal social cost of pollution is the additional cost imposed on society as a whole by an additional unit of pollution. • The marginal social benefit of pollution is the additional gain to society as a whole from an additional unit of pollution. • The socially optimal quantity of pollution is the quantity of pollution that society would choose if all the costs and benefits of pollution were fully accounted for.

6. The Socially Optimal Quantity of Pollution Marginal social cost, marginal social benefit Marginal social cost, MSC, of pollution Socially optimal point O $200 Marginal social benefit, MSB, of pollution 0 Q Quantity of pollution OPT emissions (tons) Socially optimal quantity of pollution

7. Pollution: An External Cost • An external cost is an uncompensated cost that an individual or firm imposes on others. • An external benefit is a benefit that an individual or firm confers on others without receiving compensation.

8. Pollution: An External Cost • Pollution is an example of an external cost, or negative externality; in contrast, some activities can give rise to external benefits, or positive externalities. External costs and benefits are known as externalities. • Left to itself, a market economy will typically generate too much pollution because polluters have no incentive to take into account the costs they impose on others.

9. Why a Market Economy Produces Too Much Pollution Marginal social cost, marginal social benefit MSC of pollution $400 Marginal social cost at QMKT The market outcome is inefficient: marginal social cost of pollution exceeds marginal social benefit 300 O Optimal Pigouvian tax on pollution 200 100 MSB of pollution Marginal social benefit at QMKT 0 Q Q Q Quantity of pollution OPT H M K T emissions (tons) Socially optimal quantity of pollution Market-determined quantity of pollution

10. Private Solutions to Externalities • In an influential 1960 article, the economist Ronald Coase pointed out that, in an ideal world, the private sector could indeed deal with all externalities. • According to the Coase theorem,even in the presence of externalities an economy can always reach an efficient solution provided that the transaction costs—the costs to individuals of making a deal—are sufficiently low. • The costs of making a deal are known as transaction costs.

11. Private Solutions to Externalities • The implication of Coase’s analysis is that externalities need not lead to inefficiency because individuals have an incentive to find a way to make mutually beneficial deals that lead them to take externalities into account when making decisions. • When individuals do take externalities into account, economists say that they internalize the externality. • Why can’t individuals always internalize externalities? • Transaction costs prevent individuals from making efficient deals.

12. Private Solutions to Externalities • Examples of transaction costs include the following: • The costs of communication among the interested parties—costs that may be very high if many people are involved. • The costs of making legally binding agreements that may be high if doing so requires the employment of expensive legal services. • Costly delays involved in bargaining—even if there is a potentially beneficial deal, both sides may hold out in an effort to extract more favorable terms, leading to increased effort and forgone utility.

13. Policies Toward Pollution • Environmental standards are rules that protect the environment by specifying actions by producers and consumers. Generally such standards are inefficient because they are inflexible. • An emissions taxis a tax that depends on the amount of pollution a firm produces. • Tradable emissions permitsare licenses to emit limited quantities of pollutants that can be bought and sold by polluters. • Taxes designed to reduce external costs are known as Pigouvian taxes.

14. Environmental Standards Versus Emissions Taxes (a) Environmental Standard (b) Emissions Taxes Marginal benefit to individual polluter Marginal benefit to individual polluter MB MB $600 $600 B B S MB MB B A A 300 T T A B 200 S A 150 Emissions tax 0 300 600 0 200 400 600 Quantity of pollution emissions (tons) Quantity of pollution emissions (tons) Environmental standards forces both plants to cut emission by half Without government action, each plant emits 600 tons. Plant A has a lower marginal benefit of pollution and reduces emissions by 400 tons Plant B has a higher marginal benefit of pollution and reduces emissions by only 200 tons

15. Policies Toward Pollution • When the quantity of pollution emitted can be directly observed and controlled, environmental goals can be achieved efficiently in two ways: emissions taxes and tradable emissions permits. • These methods are efficient because they are flexible, allocating more pollution reduction to those who can do it more cheaply. • An emissions tax is a form of Pigouvian tax, a tax designed to reduce external costs. • The optimal Pigouvian tax is equal to the marginal social cost of pollution at the socially optimal quantity of pollution.

16. Production, Consumption, and Externalities • When there are external costs, the marginal social cost of a good or activity exceeds the industry’s marginal cost of producing the good. • In the absence of government intervention, the industry typically produces too much of the good. • The socially optimal quantity can be achieved by an optimal Pigouvian tax, equal to the marginal external cost, or by a system of tradable production permits.

17. Positive Externalities and Consumption (a) Positive Externality (b) Optimal Pigouvian Subsidy Price, marginal social benefit of flu shot Price of flu shot Marginal external benefit S S Price to producers after subsidy P MSB O O P OPT Optimal Pigouvian subsidy E E P M K T MKT M K T MSB of flu shots Price to consumers after subsidy D D Q Q Q Q Quantity of flu shots Quantity of flu shots M K T OPT M K T OPT

18. Private Versus Social Benefits • The marginal social benefit of a good or activity is equal to the marginal benefit that accrues to consumers plus its marginal external benefit.

19. Private Versus Social Benefits • A Pigouvian subsidy is a payment designed to encourage activities that yield external benefits. • A technology spillover is an external benefit that results when knowledge spreads among individuals and firms. The socially optimal quantity can be achieved by an optimal Pigouvian subsidy equal to the marginal external benefit. • An industrial policy is a policy that supports industries believed to yield positive externalities.

20. Private Versus Social Costs • The marginal social cost of a good or activity is equal to the marginal cost of production plus its marginal external cost.

21. Negative Externalities and Production P MSC P OPT (a) Negative Externality (b) Optimal Pigouvian Subsidy Price of livestock Price, marginal social cost of livestock MSC of livestock Marginal external cost Price to consumers after tax S S O O Optimal Pigouvian subsidy P E E MKT MKT MKT D D Price to producers after tax Quantity of livestock Quantity of livestock Q Q Q Q OPT OPT MKT MKT

22. Network Externalities • A good is subject to a network externality when the value of the good to an individual is greater when a large number of other people also use the good.

23. Network Externalities • Any way in which other people’s consumption of a good increases your own marginal benefit from consumption of that good can give rise to network effects.

24. Network Externalities • A good is subject to positive feedback when success breeds greater success and failure breeds failure.

25. When pollution can be directly observed and controlled,government policies should be geared directly to producingthe socially optimal quantity of pollution, thequantity at which the marginal social cost of pollutionis equal to the marginal social benefit of pollution. • The costs to society of pollution are an example of anexternal cost;in some cases, however, economic activitiesyield external benefits.External costs and benefitsare jointly known as externalities,with external costscalled negative externalities and external benefitscalled positive externalities.

26. According to the Coase theorem,individuals can find away to internalize the externality,making governmentintervention unnecessary, as long as transaction costs—the costs of making a deal—are sufficiently low. • Governments often deal with pollution by imposingenvironmental standards,a method, economists argue,that is usually an inefficient way to reduce pollution.Two efficient (cost-minimizing) methods for reducingpollution are emissions taxes,a form of Pigouvian tax,and tradable emissions permits. The optimal Pigouvian tax on pollution is equal to its marginal social cost at the socially optimal quantity of pollution.

27. 5.When a good or activity yields external benefits, such astechnology spillovers,the marginal social benefit ofthe good or activity is equal to the marginal benefitaccruing to consumers plus its marginal external benefit.Without government intervention, the market producestoo little of the good or activity. An optimal Pigouviansubsidy to producers, equal to the marginal externalbenefit, moves the market to the socially optimal quantityof production. This yields higher output and a higher price to producers. It is a form of industrial policy,a policy to support industries that are believed to generate positive externalities.

28. 6.When only the original good or activity can be controlled,government policies are geared to influencinghow much of it is produced. When there are externalcosts from production, the marginal social cost of agood or activity exceeds its marginal cost to producers,the difference being the marginal external cost. Withoutgovernment action, the market produces too much of thegood or activity. The optimal Pigouvian tax on productionof the good or activity is equal to its marginal externalcost, yielding lower output and a higher price to consumers. A system of tradable production permits for the right to produce the good or activity can also achieve efficiency at minimum cost.

29. 7.Communications, transportation, and high-technologygoods are frequently subject to network externalities,which arise when the value of the good to an individualis greater when a large number of people use the good.Such goods are likely to be subject to positive feedback:if large numbers of people buy the good, other people aremore likely to buy it, too. Producers have an incentive totake aggressive action in the early stages of the market toincrease the size of their network. Markets with network externalities tend to be monopolies.