Santilli’s New Fuels as Sources of Clean Combustion

1. Santilli’sNew Fuels as Sources of Clean Combustion I. B. Das Sarma Jhulelal Institute of Technology Off. KoradiOctroi Post Lonara, Nagpur-441 111 INDIA E-mail: dassarmaindrani@rediffmail.com

2. Acknowledgment • The financial support for this work from The R. M. SantilliFoundation, Palm Harbor, Florida is gratefully acknowledged. • The author is grateful to Prof. A.A. Bhalekar & Dr. V.M. Tangde for conducting ‘One day motivational workshop on Santilli’s New Mathematics’ at Smt. BhagwatiChaturvedi College of Engineering, Nagpur, INDIA. • Author is also grateful for the constant encouragement and valuable guidance in preparing this paper and presentation by- • Professor R. M. Santilli • Professor C. Corda • Professor R. Anderson • Professor A. A. Bhalekar • Dr. V. M. Tangde

3. Contents • Introduction • Modern Scenario of energy • Hadronic Energy of Non-nuclear Type • Hadronic Energy of Nuclear Type • Conclusion

4. Insufficiencies of Quantum Mechanics • It is based on Galilei and Poincaré symmetries, which are applicable only for Keplerian systems, requiring a nucleus. So, according to Prof. Santilli, Quantum mechanics cannot be exactly valid for nuclear structures because nuclei do not have their own nucleus to revolve around, as a consequence of which the basic Galilean and Poincaré symmetries must be broken, thus causing incontrovertible deviations from quantum axioms.

5. Hamiltonian nature of quantum mechanics restricts the understanding of nuclear forces. Hence, to represent the a nuclear force with a potential up to 35 different potentials have been added without achieving the required exact representation. • The linear, local and Hamiltonian character of quantum mechanics is effective for the classification of hadrons under their point-like approximation, but is inadequate for structure related problems due to expected nonlinear, nonlocal and non-Hamiltonian effects occurring within the hyper dense media inside hadrons.

6. Thus, Prof. Santilli states: According to the standard model, at the time of the neutron synthesis from protons and electrons inside a star, the permanently stable protons and electrons simply disappear from the universe to be replaced by conjectural quarks, and then the proton and the electron simply reappear at the time of the neutron decay. These beliefs are simply repugnant to me because excessively irrational, thus showing the conduction of particle physics via academic authority, rather than scientific veritas.

7. The theory fails to explain the following even for the simplest nucleus of deuterium: • The spin 1 of deuterium since quantum axioms require that the single stable bound state of two particles with spin ½, (proton and neutron) must be the singlet state with spin zero. • To represent the magnetic moment of deuterium. • The stability of unstable neutron when coupled to proton in a nucleus (e.g. deuterium). T½ of neutron ≅15 minutes.

8. Quantum Mechanics is inapplicable for explaining the synthesis of neutron from a proton and an electron as occurring in stars because, in this case the Schrödinger equation becomes inconsistent. • It is unsuitable for all processes that are irreversible over time, like nuclear fusions, because quantum mechanics is reversible over time, thus admitting the time reversal event which violates energy conservation, causality and other basic laws. • It also fails to explain irreversible non-nuclear process like combustion.

9. Insufficiencies of Quantum Chemistry • It cannot predict quantitatively how two identical electrons attract each other to form a bond (as in a molecule). • It cannot be exactly valid for the study of chemical reactions. E.g. In case of the strictly irreversible reaction H2+O → H2O Quantum chemistry admits finite probability for the time reversal event, i.e. the spontaneous disintegration of the water molecule into its original constituents, H2O → H2 + O However, this concept violates the principle of conservation of the energy.

10. Exact representation of molecular binding energies could be provided only by screening of the Coulomb potential (i.e. multiplication of fundamental Coulomb potential between two valence electrons, V = e2/r, by an arbitrary function f(r) of completely unknown origin). f(r) was obtained from experimental data and screened Coulomb potentials accurately represented binding energies.

11. However… • The conversion of Coulomb potential to its screened form requires a non-unitary transform. So, the screening of Coulomb potential causes major departures from the unitary structure of quantum mechanics. • The Coulomb potential is a fundamental invariant of quantum mechanics. Consequently, its screening causes the breaking of the fundamental Galilei symmetry under which conditions quantum mechanics cannot be accurate. • It is well known that the quantum of energy is solely possible for the Coulomb law and that any quantization of the energy is impossible for screened potentials.

12. Need for Hadronic Mechanics • Quantitative treatment of neutron synthesis from protons and electrons (occurring in stars). • Quantitative studies on the possible utilization of the inextinguishable energy contained inside the neutron. • The study of new clean energies and fuels that cannot even be conceived with the 20th century doctrines and other basic advances.

13. Quantum mechanics was conceived for the study of interactions among particles at large mutual distances which is representable with differential equations defined over a finite set of isolated points. • Hadronic mechanics was formulated for the study of the additional nonlocal-integral interactions due to mutual wave overlapping. The interactions are defined over an entire volume and cannot be effectively approximated by their abstraction into finite number of isolated points. • The same interaction cannot be derived from a Hamiltonian or non-linear in their wave functions or their derivatives1. 1. Elements of Hadronic Mechanics, Vol. I, Mathematical Foundation, R.M. Santilli, 2nd Edition, 1995, Naukova Dumka Publishers, Kiev.

14. Hadronic Mechanics Valid for inter-particle distance within 1 fm Valid at atomic level of distances & structure Macroscopic bodies in motion ≤10-13 cm >10-13 – 10– 8 cm >10-3 cm Hadronic Mechanics Quantum Mechanics Newtonian Mechanics Prof. Santilli has founded more fundamental theory of the universe, named after the composite nuclear particle hadron as Hadronic Mechanics.

15. New Mathematics Prof. Santilli states that: There cannot be a really new theory without a really new mathematics, and there cannot be a really new mathematics without new numbers. He formulated various new mathematics that coincides at the abstract realization-free level with traditional mathematics, discovering new realizations of pre-existing abstract mathematical axioms, with consequential far reaching mathematical and physical implications.

16. Isomathematics • It is developed for quantitative invariant treatment of non-local, non-potential and non-linear interactions among extended particles under mutual penetration at short distance is today known under the name of Isomathematics. • ‘Iso’ denotes the preservation of conventional axioms2. • 2. Iso-, Geno-, Hyper-mechanics for Matter, their Isoduals, for Antimatter, and their Novel Applications in Physics, Chemistry and Biology, R.M. Santilli, Extended version of invited plenary talks at the Conference of the International Association for Relativistic Dynamics, Washington, D.C., June 2002; International Congress of Mathematicians, Hong Kong, August 2002; International Conference on Physical Interpretation of Relativity Theories, London, September 2002.

17. Isomathematics was initially proposed by Prof. R. M. Santilli3 in 1978 and subsequently studied by several mathematicians, theoreticians and experimentalists4-7 . • Valence bonds include conventional local differential Coulomb interactions, as well as nonlocal, nonlinear and nonpotential interactions due to wave overlappings. • The former interactions can be represented with the conventional Hamiltonian, but the latter interactions can be represented via a generalization of the basic unit as a condition to achieve invariance (since the unit is the basic invariant of any theory). 3. R. M. Santilli: Hadronic J. 1, 224 (1978). 4. J. L. Lagrange, Mechanique Analytique (1788), reprinted by Gauthier-Villars, Paris (1888). 5. S. Lie, Over en Classe Geometriske Transformationer, English translation by E. Trell, Algebras Groups and Geometries 15, 395 (1998). 6. R. M. Santilli, Suppl. Nuovo Cimento 6, 1225 (l968). 7. R. M. Santilli, Hadronic J. 3, 440 (l979).

18. Isomathematics preserves all the axioms of 20th century Lie-algebra but introduces the non-unitary multiplication unit (a scalar or tensorial quantity). • Thus, all the ordinary units can be istopically lifted (converted to its isotopic equivalent) by multiplying it with an isounit, Î. • Thus, divergent parameters can be made convergent i.e. achieving the broadening of unitary-canonical theories into non-unitary, non-canonical extensions • Isounit does not have an unit value as in ordinary mathematics but may have any positive value. I = +1→Î • The positive definiteness of iso-unit, Î is given by where

20. Genomathematics • The irreversibility of the macroscopic reality cannot be quantified by isomathematics is that because the Lie-Santilli isotheory is structurally reversible (theory coincides with its time reversal image for reversible Hamiltonians and isounits). • The resolution of this insufficiency required suitable broadening of the Lie-Santilli isotheory. In turn, the achievement of an invariant formulation of the latter theory required the construction of a new mathematics that Professor Santilli formulated8 way back in 1978 under the name of genomathematics • The term genotopy means inducing configuration alternately can be understood as axiom inducing. • Alteration of the original axioms in favour of covering axioms admitting the original one as particular case. 8. R. M. Santilli, On a possible Lie-admissible covering of the Galilei relativity in Newtonian mechanics for non-conservative and Galilei form-noninvariant systems, Hadronic J., vol. 1, pp. 223 -423, 1978

21. The main idea of genomathematics is the selection of two different generalized units called genounits, the first Î> for the ordered multiplication to the right A > B, called forward genoproduct, and the second <Î for the ordered multiplicationto the left A < B, called backward genoproduct, according to the general rules. • The point at the foundations of the Lie-admissible theory is that the multiplications of the same numbers in different orderings are generally different, α > β ≠ β < α • So, this indicates possibility of introducing two orderd iso units called geno units1

22. The 1st expression permits dual generaliztion one for ordering to the right yielding right genofield having elements are called right genonumber. • The one for ordering to the left yielding left genofield having elements are called left genonumber • The two genofields can be denoted with the unified symbol with the understanding that the orderings can be used only individually1

23. Hypermathematics • Genonumbers were extended to yet new numbers today known as Santilli'shyperreal, hypercomplex and hyperquaternionic numbers to the right and to the left, or generically as hypernumbers that are multivalued, namely, not only the units and products to the right and to the left are different, but the hyperunit has an ordered set of values and, consequently, the multiplication yields an ordered set of results. E.g.: the hyper-lifting of results in • Santilli'shypernumbers are different than hyperstructures because the former use conventional operations while the latter use abstract operations. • Santilli'shypernumbers verify all axioms of a field, while conventional hyperstructures do not generally admit any unit at all, thus not being generally formulated over a field, with consequential severe restrictions in applications.

24. Genotheories are insufficient to represent the entire nature as they are unable to represent biological structures such as a cell or a seashell. The latter systems are indeed open-nonconservative-irreversible, yet they possess a structure dramatically more complex than that of a nonconservative Newtonian system. A study of the issue has revealed that the limitation of genotheories is due to their single-valued character. • As an illustration, mathematical treatments complemented with computer visualization have established that the shape of sea shells can be well described via the conventional single-valued three-dimensional Euclidean space and geometry according to the empirical perception of our three Eustachian tubes. A computer visualization of seashells studied by Illert that varies the isoeuclidean representation of seashell's growth while the conventional Euclidean representation does not.

25. Hyper-mathematics is characterized by the following hyperunits expressed for the lifting of the Euclidean unit • Mathematics is not 3m-dimensional, but rather it is 3-dimensional and m-multi-valued. Such a feature permits the increase of the reference axes, e.g., for m = 2 we have the six axes, while achieving compatibility with our sensory perception because at the abstract, realization-free level. • The hypermathematics characterized by hyperunit is indeed 3-dimensional.

26. Modern Scenario of Energy • Energy requirements is being mostly fulfilled by the conventional source of energy i.e. molecular combustion of fossil fuels, hydrogen or nuclear fission. • Fossil fuel combustion generates large amount of green house gases like CO2, hydrocarbons, etc. • Hydrogen combustion depletes atmospheric O2 by forming H2O. • Nuclear fission generates large amount of nuclear waste risking ecosystem and life.

28. Energy Sources Conventional Energy Sources Non-conventional Energy Sources Thermal Power Solar Power Nuclear Power Wind Power Hydel Power Tidal Power Geo-thermal Power Ocean-thermal Power

29. Clean energy is obtained by harnessing renewable energy sources like solar, wind, geothermal, tidal, etc. • They are generally dependent on geographical locations. • Also the power generated cannot be stored efficiently due to lack of efficient battery technology. • The modern day demand is that of clean energy source, which is cheap and abundant. • The fuels developed should be such that can be used in existing engines without any or major modifications. • This requirement is fulfilled by changing the approach from quantum mechanics to hadronic mechanics to hadronic chemistry.

30. Hadronic Fuels Non-nuclear Type (Magnecular Combustion) Nuclear Type MagneGas Intermediate Controlled Nuclear Fusion (ICNF) MagneHydrogen Stimulated decay of neutron MagneWater

31. Non-nuclear Type Hadronic Fuel (Magnecular Combustion)

32. Hydrogen • Two H-atoms placed adjacent to each other without overlap of electron wave packets. They show conventional spherical charge distribution around their respective nucleus. • Isochemical model of H2 molecule with a stable iso-electronium at absolute zero revolving in the oo-shaped orbital

33. The new interactions at the foundations of hadronic mechanics originating from mutual contact and penetration of the wavepackets of particles at short distances that are non-Hamiltonian because non-linear, non-local and non-potential, thus requiring a non-unitary lifting of quantum mechanics, including its mathematics, physical laws and experimental verifications9. 9. I. Gandzha and J. Kadeisvily; New Sciences For A New Era: Mathematical, Physical and Chemical Discoveries of Ruggero Maria Santilli; Sankata Printing Press, Kathmandu, Nepal, (2011).

34. It consists in the use of sufficiently strong external magnetic fields which can progressively eliminate all rotations, thus reducing the hydrogen molecule to a configuration which, at absolute zero degrees temperature, can be assumed to lie in a plane. The planar configuration of the electron orbits then implies the manifestation of their magnetic moment which would be otherwise absent. The R.H.S of the above picture outlines the geometry of the magnetic field in the immediate vicinity of an electric arc as described in the text for the case of hadronic molecular reactors. the circular configuration of the magnetic field lines around the electric discharge, the tangential nature of the symmetry axis of the magnetic polarization of the hydrogen atoms with respect to said circular magnetic lines, and the consideration of hydrogen atoms at orbital distances from the electric arc 10−8 cm, resulting in extremely strong magnetic fields proportional to (10−8)−2 = 1016 Gauss, thus being ample sufficient to create the needed polarization. The reason for these results is the intrinsic geometry of the PlasmaArcFlow A schematic view of the main mechanism underlying the creation of magnecules, here illustrated for the case of the hydrogen molecule.

35. It consists in the use of sufficiently strong external magnetic fields which can progressively eliminate all rotations, thus reducing the hydrogen molecule to a configuration which, at absolute zero degrees temperature, can be assumed to lie in a plane. • The planar configuration of the electron orbits then implies the manifestation of their magnetic moment which would be otherwise absent. • The r.h.s. of the above picture outlines the geometry of the magnetic field in the immediate vicinity of an electric arc as in hadronic molecular reactors. • The circular configuration of the magnetic field lines around the electric discharge, the tangential nature of the symmetry axis of the magnetic polarization of the hydrogen atoms with respect to said circular magnetic lines, and the consideration of hydrogen atoms at orbital distances from the electric arc 10−8 cm, resulting in extremely strong magnetic fields proportional to (10−8)−2 = 1016 Gauss, thus being ample sufficient to create the needed polarization. • The reason for these results is the intrinsic geometry of the PlasmaArcFlowTM

36. Santilli Magnecules The search for a new bond between stable clusters of same atoms/molecules composing fossil fuels under the following: • CONDITION 1: The new bond should be weaker than the valence bond as a necessary condition to decrease pollutants • CONDITION 2: The new weaker bond should allow the formation of clusters that are stable at industrially used storage values of temperature and pressure, e.g., those for methane; and • CONDITION 3: The new, weaker and stable bond should decompose itself at the combustion temperature to optimize the energy released by the combustion. These conditions could be fulfilled by a novel chemical species called ‘SantilliMagnecules’ or ‘Magnecules’.

37. d • An isolated conventional spherical configuration of H-atom at absolute zero degree temperature shows forces due to- • electric charge of electron • electric charge of proton • intrinsic magnetic moment of electron • intrinsic magnetic moment of proton. • The same H-atom when its peripheral electron orbit is polarized into a plane, a fifth field10 due to the magnetic dipole moment caused by the rotation of the electron in its planar orbit emerges. d 10. The new fuels with magnecular structure, Ruggero Maria Santilli, International Academic Press, 2005

38. Magnecules, thus are novel chemical species having at least one magnecular bond other than usual covalent bond. • ‘–’ denotes covalent bond and ‘×’ denotes magnecular bond • The atoms are held together by magnetic fields originating due to toroidal polarization of the atomic electron orbits. • The rotation of the electrons within the toroid creates the magnetic field which is absent for the same atom with conventional spherical distribution of electron orbitals. The oo-shaped orbital of isoelectronium, under an external strong magnetic field gets polarized. The two H atoms acquire parallel but opposite magnetic polarities with null value at sufficient distance. The toroidal distribution of the isoelectronium orbital due to the isouncertainty principle of hadronic mechanics.

39. When two such polarized atoms are sufficiently close to each other and in north-south-north-south alignment, the resulting total force between the two atoms is attractive. • This polarization requires high magnetic field. • At atomic distances from electric arcs of 1000 A of current, the magnetic field is of the order of 1011 Gauss, which is sufficient to polarize atomic orbitals into toroids for magnecular coupling. Conceptual diagram of an elementary magnecule comprising two identical atoms whose bond is entirely of magnecular character, originating from opposing polarities North-South-North-South of the toroidal distributions of orbitals, as well as the polarization of nuclear and electron magnetic moments.

40. Classification of magnecules • Isomagnecules : • All single-valued characteristics • Reversible in time, when characterized by isochemistry • Genomagnecules: • All single-valued characteristics • Irreversible in time, when characterized by genochemistry • Hypermagnecules: • At least one multi-valued characteristic • Irreversible in time, when characterized by hyperchemistry

41. Structural classification of magnecules • Elementary : • Composed only of two molecules, • e.g.: {H – H} × {H – H}; {H – O – H} × {H – O – H} and so on • Magneplexes : • Entirely composed of several identical molecules • e.g.: {H – O – H} × {H – O – H} × {H – O – H} × {H – O – H} × {H – O – H} × …; and so on • Magneclusters: • Composed of several different molecules • e.g.: {H – H} × {C – O} × {O – C – O} × {C = O} × {H – H}× …; and so on

43. Characteristics of magnecules • Large atomic weights which are ten times or more than the conventional molecules. • Large peaks in macroscopic percentages in mass spectra, which do not belong to conventional molecules. • These peaks show same infra-red and ultra-violet signature as expected from the conventional molecules and/or dimers constituting the magnecule. • Said infrared and ultraviolet signatures are generally altered with respect to the conventional versions. • Magnecules have an anomalous adhesion to other substances.

44. Breaks down into fragments under high energetic collisions, with subsequent recombination with other fragments and/or conventional molecules. • They can build up or lose individual atoms, molecules during collision. • They have an anomalous penetration through other substances indicating a reduction of the average size of conventional molecules as expected under magnetic polarizations. • Gas magnecules show an anomalous solubility in liquids due to new magnetic bonds between gas and liquid molecules caused by magnetic induction. • Magnecules can be formed by molecules of immiscible liquids.

45. A gas with magnecular structure does not follow the ideal gas law. • Substances with magnecular structure have anomalous physical characteristics, as compared to the conventional molecules. • Magnecules release more energy in thermochemical reactions than that released by the same reactions among unpolarized molecular constituents. • All the above characteristic features disappear when the magnecules are brought to a sufficiently high temperature (Curie Magnecular Temperature), which varies from species to species.

46. MagneGas • Principle of synthesis of magnecules is similar to the magnetization of a ferromagnet where the orbits of unbounded electrons are polarized. • Thus, theoretically any matter whether solid, liquid or gas can be converted to magnecules provided it is subjected to sufficiently strong external magnetic field. • So, molecular H2 and O2 gases can be turned into their respective magnecular structure called MagneHydrogenTM (MH) and MagneOxygenTM (MO) by subjecting them to strong external magnetic field. • This field is obtained in a Hadronic reactor.

47. Hadronic Refinery Santilli hadronic refineries for converting liquid waste into a clean burning, cost competitive gaseous fuel with magnecular structure. The pressure metal vessel; the submerged electrodes; the recirculation of the feedstock through the arc; the external AC-DC converter; the external automatic controls of the arc; and the collection of the produced magnecular fuel.

48. Six characteristic temperature ranges and associated regions11 • Structure and Combustion of MagnegasesTM, R. M. Santilli and A. K. Aringazin, • arXiv:physics/0112066v1 [physics.gen-ph] 20 Dec 2001

49. Efficiency of Hadronic Reactor • The efficiency of Hadronic reactor is expressed in two ways namely Scientific Efficiency and Commercial Efficiency . • Scientific Efficiency is always less than 1 as per the Carnot theorem. • However, the Hadronic reactors do not produce energy sufficient for the entire regeneration of the used electric energy for various reasons, such as dispersion, very low efficiency of current electric generators, etc.

50. Regardless of this limitation, the production of MagneGas (MH) in an electric power plant (to whom the cost of electricity is zilch) is very advantageous from an energy viewpoint because- • For every kW of used energy, they produce at least the equivalent of 3 kW of thermal energy in MagneGas (MH). • When MH is used as an additive to coal or petroleum combustion, the H-content of MagneGas can burn at least half of the combustible components in the plant exhaust that constitute environmental problems. • There are additional savings (of the order of several millions of dollars per year) in scrubbing and other means to clean the exhaust.