Moral Reasoning and Ethical Theories

1. Moral Reasoning and Ethical Theories “Good engineering, good business, and good ethics work together in the long run.

2. What is Morality? • It concerns conduct: right and wrong, good and bad, the rules that ought to be followed • It is associated with consequences to ourselves, others, and the environment • The “right” or “good” is linked to value judgements generally thought to promote fairness, health, and safety while minimizing injustice

3. Ethical TheoriesUtilitarianism • Utilitarianism - the view that we ought to produce the most good for the most people, giving equal consideration to everyone affected • Rule-Utilitarianism is applying those rules that if generallyadopted would produce the most good for the most people • Act-Utilitarianism is applying rules in order to produce the most good for the most people involved in the particular situation (rules become at most rules of thumb)

4. Ethical Theories Utilitarianism & Theories of Good • Deeply satisfying pleasures mixed with some inevitable pains & a pattern of activities and relationships that one can affirm as valuable overall (Mill) • Things that satisfy rational desires, e.g., love and creativity. Rational desires are those we would approve of if we scrutinized our desires in light of all relevant information about the world and our own psychology (Brandt)

5. Ethical TheoriesRights Ethics • Rights Ethics - the view that human rights - not good consequences - are fundamental. • Acts of respect for human rights are obligatory, regardless of whether they always maximize good • Truthfulness important in terms of its contribution to liberty, especially within relationships based on trust • Complex in that there are many types of rights that may conflict and must be balanced

6. Ethical TheoriesRights Ethics & Liberty Rights • Liberty Rights (Locke) - places duties on other people not to interfere with one’s life. • To be a person entails having human rights to life, liberty, and the property generated by one’s labor • property thought of as whatever we gain by “mixing our labor” with things • Views reflected by today’s Libertarians

7. Ethical TheoriesRights Ethics - Liberty & Welfare Rights • Liberty & Welfare Rights (Melden) - having moral rights presupposes the capacity to show concern for others and to be accountable within a moral community • extent of rights determined in terms of interrelationships among persons • recognizes right to community benefits for living minimally decent human life

8. Ethical TheoriesDuty Ethics • Duty Ethics - the focus on duties which correspondence to and sustain fundamental rights • List of duties based on respect for persons and belief in human capacity for moral autonomy • For example, if you have a right not to be deceived, then I have a duty not to deceive you. To deceive you is to undermine your ability to carry out your plans based on available truths and within relationships based on trust

9. Kant Be truthful Be fair Make reparation for harm done Show gratitude for kindness extended Seek to improve one’s own character and talents Gert Don’t cause pain disable deprive of freedom deprive of pleasure deceive cheat Do keep your promises obey the law do your duty Ethical TheoriesDuty Ethics - List of Duties

10. Ethical TheoriesDuty Ethics - A Closer Look at Duties • Are duties universally applicable and exceptionless? Is duty absolute? • What about when duties conflict with each other, e.g., “do not deceive” versus “protect innocent life” • Prima facie duties - those that have justified exceptions or limits

11. Summary • Morality - “good” is linked to value judgements • Ethical Theories - attempt to provide perspective on moral responsibilities • Utilitarianism • Rule-Utilitarianism • Act-Utilitarianism • Rights Ethics • Duty Ethics

12. Testing and Refining Ethical Theories • Is it applicable and coherent? • Is it consistent? • Is it based on valid information? • Is it sufficiently comprehensive to provide guidance? • Is it compatible with our moral convictions?

13. Example of Refining a Theory A Theory of Justice (John Rawls) (1) Each person is entitled to the most extensive amount of political liberty compatible with an equal amount for others (2) Differences in social power and economic benefits are justified only when they are likely to benefit everyone, including members of the most disadvantaged groups

14. Virtue Ethics • Primary focus on the kinds of persons we should aspire to be • Virtues are • desirable way of relating to others (individuals or groups) • desirable habits or tendencies of motive, attitudes, and emotion as well as conduct • Vices are • undesirable habits and tendencies • By extension, virtues and vices apply to organizations

15. Aristotle: Virtue and the Golden Mean • Defined the moral virtues as tendencies, acquired through habit formation, to reach a proper balance between extremes in conduct, emotion, desire, and attitude (balance between excess and deficiency) • Example: Truthfulness is the mean between revealing all information in violation of tact and confidentiality (excess) and being secretive or lacking in candor (deficiency) in dealing with truth

16. Gandhi: Seven Social Sins (Vices) • Politics without principle • Wealth without work • Commerce without morality • Pleasure without conscience • Education without character • Science without humanity • Worship without personal sacrifice

17. MacIntyre: Virtue and Practices • Internal goods define what the practices are all about (external goods are money and prestige) • virtues defined by reference to its internal good • professional responsibility • Self-direction virtues • understanding, cognition (as grounded in moral concern) • commitment and putting understanding into action (courage, self-discipline, honesty) • Public-spirited virtues • Team-work virtues • Proficiency virtues

18. Pragmatism • A theory about morality that emphasizes the limitations of abstract rules (“anti-theory”) • Not to be confused with crass expediency • Good consequences emphasized, but so too are rights, duties and virtues within a given context • Flexibility emphasized • Like act-utilitarianism, there is danger of paying insufficient attention moral principles through immersion in specific contexts.

19. Can We Reduce Moral Reasoning to Custom, Religion, or Self-Interest? • Customs or ethical relativism is view that values are reducible to conventions, customs, or laws • would we accept bribes, cruelty, and intolerance? • Religion and divine command ethics • who are those among us who know precisely what God’s commands are or are not on each issue? • Self-interest and ethical egoism is view that the sole duty of each individual is to maximize his or her own good • is everything act reducible to personal gain, alone?

20. Meaningful Work and Professionals’ Commitments • Craft Motives • attraction to challenging work • wanting to create objects and systems • Moral Motives • contributing to the well-being of other human beings • Compensation and Self-Interest • money, power, and recognition motivate and guide human conduct • reasonable regard for one’s self-interest can be a moral virtue (prudence) as long as it does not crowd out other virtues