THE SECTIONS GO THEIR WAYS

THE SECTIONS GO THEIR WAYS • The South • the South was less affected than other regions by urbanization, European immigration, the transportation revolution, and industrialization • the South remained predominantly agricultural; however, the cultivation of cotton and tobacco expanded westward while the older sections of Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina diversified their agriculture • experiments with fertilizers, crop rotation, agricultural implements and practices, and new varieties of crops helped improve agricultural productivity

The Economics of Slavery • the increased importance of cotton in the South’s economy strengthened slavery’s hold on the region • the price of slaves increased, particularly in the Deep South, and slave trading became a big business • the slave trade had disastrous effects on slaves; families were often separated • as slaves became more expensive, ownership of slaves became more concentrated

by 1860, only 25 % of southern families owned any slaves • the South had few large plantations and many small farms which grew staple crops and owned few slaves • plantations could yield high profits, but southerners did not develop facilities for marketing or transportation • the profit from handling the crop went largely to northern merchants and middle men

southern capital was tied up in land and slaves and therefore not available for investment in other things • under slavery, southern blacks remained a nonconsuming class, and much of the intelligence, talent, and abilities of the slave population was wasted

Antebellum Plantation Life • the “typical” antebellum plantation was more like a small village than a northern farm • planters bought luxuries and manufactured goods, but plantations produced most household needs and nearly all the food consumed • the master exercised paternal authority over the plantation • his wife had immense domestic responsibilities

at the same time, she played the role of a refined, gracious southern lady • most slaves worked in the fields, but others were employed as household servants and artisans on the plantation • though simple and crude, slave quarters compared favorably with houses of European peasants

The Sociology of Slavery • it is difficult to generalize about slavery because so much depended on the individual master’s behavior • most owners provided adequate food, clothing, and shelter for their slaves • still, slaves had a higher rate of infant mortality and a lower life expectancy than whites • the United States was the only slave society in the western hemisphere whose slave population grew by natural increase

slaves had no rights • slaves accommodated themselves to the system while attempting to resist oppression • the “peculiar institution” hardened as northern opposition to slavery grew and southerners worried about insurrection • slavery remained an essentially rural institution, and its existence contributed to the rural nature of the South • not all blacks in the South were slaves; however, white southerners took a dim view of free blacks and restricted their freedom

The Psychological Effects of Slavery • with few exceptions, such as Denmark Vesey, most slaves appeared resigned to their fate • the system fostered submissiveness and discouraged independent judgment and self-reliance on the part of blacks • in spite of this, slaves maintained strong family and group attachments as well as a culture of their own • slavery had a detrimental impact on poor southerners, who associated working for others with servility

slavery inevitably affected the master class as well • the patriarchal nature of the slave system reinforced male dominance in southern society • some slave owners behaved nobly, within the confines of the institution • for others, slaves provided objects on which to vent brutal tendencies

Manufacturing in the South • despite the dominance of cotton in the southern economy, some manufacturing did exist. • rope production, iron and coal mining, iron production • Textile manufacturing in the Carolinas • despite manufacturing, the South never developed an industrial society in the 19th century

The Northern Industrial Juggernaut • Northern society placed a premium on resourcefulness and encouraged experimentation; industry in that region grew rapidly in the decades before the Civil War • the factory system made great strides, and a shortage of skilled labor led businessmen to substitute machines for trained hands • Westward expansion made new resources available, and the expansion of agriculture produced an increasing supply of raw materials for the mills and factories

a relaxation of earlier prejudices against the corporation made possible larger accumulations of capital • industrial growth increased the demand for labor • skilled artisans earned good wages; but machinery made skills less important, and the wages for an unskilled worker could barely support a family

A Nation of Immigrants • jobs created by industrial expansion attracted thousands of European immigrants • native-born Americans tended to look down on immigrants, many of whom developed prejudices of their own • the arrival of unskilled immigrants created economic disruptions

How Wage Earners Lived • growth of urban populations produced slums • wives and children of male factory workers had to work in the factories to survive • conditions for skilled workers improved in the 1840s and 1850s; the working day grew shorter, most states enacted mechanic’s lien laws, and a Massachusetts court established the legality of labor unions in Commonwealth v. Hunt (1842)

unionism remained local and weak, however, at least in part because skilled workers looked down on unskilled workers, and few laborers considered themselves part of a permanent working class

Progress and Poverty • although the United States was a democratic land of opportunity with an expanding economy, few class distinctions, and a comparatively high standard of living, there existed a large class of poor, unskilled, mostly immigrant laborers who were materially less well off than most southern slaves • the gap between rich and poor widened, and society became more stratified

Foreign Commerce • the United States remained primarily an exporter of raw materials and an importer of manufactured goods • cotton was the most valuable export and textiles the leading import • Britain was the leading consumer of American exports and America’s leading supplier • the success of sailing packets concentrated trade in larger port cities; smaller ports languished

several smaller port cities in New England maintained prosperity by concentrating on whaling, which boomed between 1830 and 1860 • increased foreign trade spurred the construction of ships and the development of large, fast clipper ships

Steam Conquers the Atlantic • by late 1840s, steamships captured most of the transatlantic passenger traffic, mail contracts, and first class freight; although fast sailing ships held their own on very long voyages for many years • Britain’s mastery of iron technology negated traditional advantages American shipbuilders had enjoyed and gave Britain the lead in the development of iron ships, which were larger, stronger, and less costly to maintain • Shipping rates declined, which encouraged immigration from Europe

Canals and Railroads • canal building continued in the 1830s and 1840s; each year saw more western produce move to market through the canals • first American railroads were built in the 1830s • first railroads did not compete with canals for intersectional traffic; the through connections needed to move goods economically over great distances materialized slowly

competition among railroad companies prevented connections, and engineering problems impeded growth • by the 1850s, however, these problems had been solved, and by the end of the decade, the Pennsylvania Railroad crossed the mountains

Financing the Railroads • railroad construction required immense amounts of labor and capital • immigrants and slaves did most of the work • private investors provided most of the money invested in railroads before 1860 • towns, counties, and states also lent money to railroads, invested in railroad stock, and granted special privileges to railroads (including tax exemptions and the right to condemn property) • eastern and southern interests often opposed federal aid to railroads until after the Civil War

Railroads and the Economy • railroad construction had profound effects • the location of a railroad helped determine what agricultural land was used and how profitably it could be farmed • land grant railroads stimulated agricultural expansion by selling farm sites at low rates on liberal terms • access to world markets provided an incentive to agricultural production

labor remained scarce, but new machines, including the steel plowshare and the McCormick reaper, helped ease the labor shortage • eastern seaports benefited from the railroads, as did intermediate centers, such as Buffalo, Cincinnati, and Chicago • railroads stimulated other economic activity • they spurred regional concentration of industry and investment banking

the complexity of their operations required elaborate administrative structures, which made them the first modern business enterprises • proliferation of trunk lines and competition from the canal system led to a sharp decline in freight and passenger rates

Railroads and the Sectional Conflict • the economic integration of East and West stimulated nationalism and became a force for preserving the Union • increased production and cheap transportation meant more income and an improved standard of living for western farmers • without railroads and canals and the link they provided to eastern markets, Midwest would not likely have sided against the South in 1861 • failure to build a railroad system of its own cost the South its influence in the Old Northwest

The Economy on the Eve of the Civil War • between the mid-1840s and mid-1850s, the United States experienced remarkable growth in manufacturing, agricultural production, population, railroad mileage, gold production, and sales of public land • such growth inevitably caused dislocations; and a serious economic collapse in 1857 checked agricultural expansion, which hurt the railroads and cut down on demand for manufactured goods • as a result, unemployment increased

the vigor of the economy soon ended the economic downturn • the economic panic had its greatest impact on the upper Mississippi Valley; it had little effect on the South, because cotton prices remained high

THE SECTIONS GO THEIR WAYS