Nonrenewable Energy

1. Chapter 16 Nonrenewable Energy

2. Chapter Overview Questions What are the advantages and disadvantages of conventional oil and nonconventional heavy oils? What are the advantages and disadvantages of natural gas? What are the advantages and disadvantages of coal and the conversion of coal to gaseous and liquid fuels?

3. Chapter Overview Questions (cont�d) What are the advantages and disadvantages of conventional nuclear fission, breeder nuclear fission, and nuclear fusion?

4. Core Case Study: How Long Will the Oil Party Last? Saudi Arabia could supply the world with oil for about 10 years. The Alaska�s North Slope could meet the world oil demand for 6 months (U.S.: 3 years). Alaska�s Arctic National Wildlife Refuge would meet the world demand for 1-5 months (U.S.: 7-25 months).

5. Core Case Study: How Long Will the Oil Party Last? We have three options: Look for more oil. Use or waste less oil. Use something else.

6. TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES About 99% of the energy we use for heat comes from the sun and the other 1% comes mostly from burning fossil fuels. Solar energy indirectly supports wind power, hydropower, and biomass. About 76% of the commercial energy we use comes from nonrenewable fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal) with the remainder coming from renewable sources.

7. TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES Nonrenewable energy resources and geothermal energy in the earth�s crust.

8. Figure 16.2 Natural capital: important nonrenewable energy resources that can be removed from the earth�s crust are coal, oil, natural gas, and some forms of geothermal energy. Nonrenewable uranium ore is also extracted from the earth�s crust and processed to increase its concentration of uranium-235, which can serve as a fuel in nuclear reactors to produce electricity.Figure 16.2 Natural capital: important nonrenewable energy resources that can be removed from the earth�s crust are coal, oil, natural gas, and some forms of geothermal energy. Nonrenewable uranium ore is also extracted from the earth�s crust and processed to increase its concentration of uranium-235, which can serve as a fuel in nuclear reactors to produce electricity.

9. TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES Commercial energy use by source for the world (left) and the U.S. (right).

10. Figure 16.3 Natural capital: commercial energy use by source for the world (left) and the United States (right) in 2004. Commercial energy amounts to only 1% of the energy used in the world; the other 99% is direct solar energy received from the sun and is not sold in the marketplace. (Data from U.S. Department of Energy, British Petroleum, Worldwatch Institute, and International Energy Agency)Figure 16.3 Natural capital: commercial energy use by source for the world (left) and the United States (right) in 2004. Commercial energy amounts to only 1% of the energy used in the world; the other 99% is direct solar energy received from the sun and is not sold in the marketplace. (Data from U.S. Department of Energy, British Petroleum, Worldwatch Institute, and International Energy Agency)

11. Figure 16.3 Natural capital: commercial energy use by source for the world (left) and the United States (right) in 2004. Commercial energy amounts to only 1% of the energy used in the world; the other 99% is direct solar energy received from the sun and is not sold in the marketplace. (Data from U.S. Department of Energy, British Petroleum, Worldwatch Institute, and International Energy Agency)Figure 16.3 Natural capital: commercial energy use by source for the world (left) and the United States (right) in 2004. Commercial energy amounts to only 1% of the energy used in the world; the other 99% is direct solar energy received from the sun and is not sold in the marketplace. (Data from U.S. Department of Energy, British Petroleum, Worldwatch Institute, and International Energy Agency)

12. TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES Net energy is the amount of high-quality usable energy available from a resource after subtracting the energy needed to make it available.

13. Net Energy Ratios The higher the net energy ratio, the greater the net energy available. Ratios < 1 indicate a net energy loss.

14. Figure 16.4 Science: Net energy ratios for various energy systems over their estimated lifetimes: the higher the net energy ratio, the greater the net energy available. QUESTION: Based on these data which three resources in each category should we be using? Compare this with the major resources we are actually using as shown in Figure 16-3. (Data from U.S. Department of Energy and Colorado Energy Research Institute, Net Energy Analysis, 1976; and Howard T. Odum and Elisabeth C. Odum, Energy Basis for Man and Nature, 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981)Figure 16.4 Science: Net energy ratios for various energy systems over their estimated lifetimes: the higher the net energy ratio, the greater the net energy available. QUESTION: Based on these data which three resources in each category should we be using? Compare this with the major resources we are actually using as shown in Figure 16-3. (Data from U.S. Department of Energy and Colorado Energy Research Institute, Net Energy Analysis, 1976; and Howard T. Odum and Elisabeth C. Odum, Energy Basis for Man and Nature, 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981)

15. OIL Crude oil (petroleum) is a thick liquid containing hydrocarbons that we extract from underground deposits and separate into products such as gasoline, heating oil and asphalt. Only 35-50% can be economically recovered from a deposit. As prices rise, about 10-25% more can be recovered from expensive secondary extraction techniques. This lowers the net energy yield.

16. OIL Refining crude oil: Based on boiling points, components are removed at various layers in a giant distillation column. The most volatile components with the lowest boiling points are removed at the top.

17. Figure 16.5 Science: refining crude oil. Based on their boiling points, components are removed at various levels in a giant distillation column. The most volatile components with the lowest boiling points are removed at the top of the column.Figure 16.5 Science: refining crude oil. Based on their boiling points, components are removed at various levels in a giant distillation column. The most volatile components with the lowest boiling points are removed at the top of the column.

18. OIL Eleven OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) have 78% of the world�s proven oil reserves and most of the world�s unproven reserves. After global production peaks and begins a slow decline, oil prices will rise and could threaten the economies of countries that have not shifted to new energy alternatives.

19. OIL Inflation-adjusted price of oil, 1950-2006.

20. Figure 16.6 Economics: inflation-adjusted price of oil, 1950�2006. When adjusted for inflation, oil costs about the same as it did in 1975. Although low oil prices have stimulated economic growth, they have discouraged improvements in energy efficiency and use of renewable energy resources. QUESTIONS: Were you aware that when adjusted for inflation oil and gasoline do not cost much more today than in 1975? Is this desirable or undesirable from an environmental standpoint? Explain. (U.S. Department of Energy and Department of Commerce)Figure 16.6 Economics: inflation-adjusted price of oil, 1950�2006. When adjusted for inflation, oil costs about the same as it did in 1975. Although low oil prices have stimulated economic growth, they have discouraged improvements in energy efficiency and use of renewable energy resources. QUESTIONS: Were you aware that when adjusted for inflation oil and gasoline do not cost much more today than in 1975? Is this desirable or undesirable from an environmental standpoint? Explain. (U.S. Department of Energy and Department of Commerce)

21. Case Study: U.S. Oil Supplies The U.S. � the world�s largest oil user � has only 2.9% of the world�s proven oil reserves. U.S oil production peaked in 1974 (halfway production point). About 60% of U.S oil imports goes through refineries in hurricane-prone regions of the Gulf Coast.

23. OIL Burning oil for transportation accounts for 43% of global CO2 emissions.

24. Figure 16.7 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of using conventional crude oil as an energy resource. QUESTION: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important?Figure 16.7 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of using conventional crude oil as an energy resource. QUESTION: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important?

25. CO2 Emissions CO2 emissions per unit of energy produced for various energy resources.

26. Figure 16.8 Natural capital degradation: CO2 emissions per unit of energy produced by using various energy resources to produce electricity, expressed as percentages of emissions produced by burning coal directly. These emissions can enhance the earth�s natural greenhouse effect (Figure 5-7, p. 104) and lead to warming of the troposphere. QUESTION: What three conclusions can you draw from these data? (Data from U.S. Department of Energy)Figure 16.8 Natural capital degradation: CO2 emissions per unit of energy produced by using various energy resources to produce electricity, expressed as percentages of emissions produced by burning coal directly. These emissions can enhance the earth�s natural greenhouse effect (Figure 5-7, p. 104) and lead to warming of the troposphere. QUESTION: What three conclusions can you draw from these data? (Data from U.S. Department of Energy)

27. Heavy Oils from Oil Sand and Oil Shale: Will Sticky Black Gold Save Us? Heavy and tarlike oils from oil sand and oil shale could supplement conventional oil, but there are environmental problems. High sulfur content. Extracting and processing produces: Toxic sludge Uses and contaminates larges volumes of water Requires large inputs of natural gas which reduces net energy yield.

28. Alternative to Oil Oil Shales and Tar Sands Estimates of total oil supply usually do not reflect large potential from unconventional oil sources such as shale oil and tar sand. Could potentially double total reserve.

29. Oil Shales Oil shales contain a solid combustible mixture of hydrocarbons called kerogen.

30. Oil Shale A finely-grained sedimentary rock that contains a solid, waxy mixture of hydrocarbons - Kerogen. �Shale Oil� - slow-moving, dark brown Colorado, Wyoming, Utah 80% below public lands in U.S. Other deposits: China, Canada, Russia

31. Oil Shale II Takes much water to mine it occurs in arid regions produces much CO2 massive land disruption rock blows up like popcorn-�beneficiation� salts and carcinogens leach from rocks net 1/2 bbl for each 1 bbl extracted

32. Tar Sands deposit of a mixture of fine clay, sand, water, and amounts of bitumen, a gooey, black, high-sulfur, heavy oil surface mining and heated at high temps to make bitumen fluid and float Largest deposits in Northern Alberta May exceed Saudia Arabian deposits! Net 1/2 bbl per 1 bbl extracted.

33. Heavy Oils It takes about 1.8 metric tons of oil sand to produce one barrel of oil.

34. Figure 16.10 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of using heavy oils from oil sand and oil shale as energy resources. QUESTION: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important?Figure 16.10 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of using heavy oils from oil sand and oil shale as energy resources. QUESTION: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important?

35. NATURAL GAS Natural gas, consisting mostly of methane, is often found above reservoirs of crude oil. When a natural gas-field is tapped, gasses are liquefied and removed as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Coal beds and bubbles of methane trapped in ice crystals deep under the arctic permafrost and beneath deep-ocean sediments are unconventional sources of natural gas.

36. NATURAL GAS Russia and Iran have almost half of the world�s reserves of conventional gas, and global reserves may last 60-125 years. Natural gas is versatile and clean-burning fuel, but it releases the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (when burned) and methane (from leaks) into the troposphere.

37. NATURAL GAS World�s third largest commercial fuel. 23% of global energy consumption. Produces half as much CO2 as equivalent amount of coal. Most rapidly growing energy source. Difficult to ship long distances, and to store in large quantities.

38. NATURAL GAS 50-90% Methane gas + smaller amounts of heavier gaseous hydrocarbons Propane and Butane gasses are liquified into Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG), stored in pressurized tanks and piped to location America�s largest deposits are in Alaska

39. NATURAL GAS II 95% of natural gas used in U.S. is domestic; 5% from Canada Burns hot, less air pollution, no SO2, no particulate matter, 1/6 the NOxs, easily transported, high net energy

40. Natural Gas Resources and Reserves Proven world reserves of natural gas are 5,500 trillion ft3. Current reserves represent roughly 60 year supply at present usage rates. Proven reserves in North America are about 250 trillion ft3.

41. Proven Natural Gas Reserves

42. Unconventional Gas Sources Methane hydrate - Small individual molecules of natural gas trapped in a crystalline matrix of frozen water. About 50 oceanic deposits and several land deposits are known to exist. Thought to hold 10,000 gigatons of carbon, or twice as much as combined amount of all traditional fossil fuels combined. Difficult to extract, store, and ship. Japan and Prudhoe Bay, AK

43. NATURAL GAS Some analysts see natural gas as the best fuel to help us make the transition to improved energy efficiency and greater use of renewable energy.

44. Figure 16.11 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of using conventional natural gas as an energy resource. QUESTION: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important?Figure 16.11 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of using conventional natural gas as an energy resource. QUESTION: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important?

45. COAL Coal is a solid fossil fuel that is formed in several stages as the buried remains of land plants that lived 300-400 million years ago.

46. Figure 16.12 Natural capital: stages in coal formation over millions of years. Peat is a soil material made of moist, partially decomposed organic matter. Lignite and bituminous coal are sedimentary rocks, whereas anthracite is a metamorphic rock (Figure 15-8, p. 343). QUESTION: Are there coal deposits near where you live or go to school?Figure 16.12 Natural capital: stages in coal formation over millions of years. Peat is a soil material made of moist, partially decomposed organic matter. Lignite and bituminous coal are sedimentary rocks, whereas anthracite is a metamorphic rock (Figure 15-8, p. 343). QUESTION: Are there coal deposits near where you live or go to school?

48. COAL Fossilized plant material preserved by burial in sediments and compacted and condensed by geological forces into carbon-rich fuel. Most laid down during Carboniferous period (286 million to 360 million years ago).

49. COAL Lignite (brown coal): close to peat, mush moisture and volatiles, ~7,000 BTU/lb Bituminous (soft coal): refined by pressure and heat, more carbon, lower moisture and volatiles, ~12,000 BTU/lb Anthracite (hard coal): final coal, dense, <6% moisture and volatiles, steady blue flame, ~14,000 BTU/lb, blue flame

50. Wood vs. Coal Dry hickory-one of the best fuelwoods- ~6,800-7,000 BTU/lb Trace elements in coal: uranium, arsenic, boron, beryllium, cobalt, copper, lead, and mercury Sulfur: 0.5%-10%, most in U.S. is 1-2% Bag-o-coal: 1.2 lbs SO2 per 80 lb bag

51. Coal Resources and Reserves World coal deposits are ten times greater than conventional oil and gas resources combined. Under current consumption rates, this could last several thousand years.

52. Proven-In-Place Coal Reserves

53. Coal Mining Between 1870 and 1950, more than 30,000 coal miners died of accidents and injuries in Pennsylvania alone. Equal to one man per day for 80 years. Several thousands have died of respiratory diseases. Black Lung Disease - Inflammation and fibrosis caused by accumulation of coal dust in the lungs or airways.

54. Coal Air Pollution Coal burning releases radioactivity and toxic metals into the atmosphere. Coal combustion is responsible for 25% of all atmospheric mercury pollution in the U.S.. Coal contains up to 10% sulfur by weight. Unless removed by washing or flue-gas scrubbing, sulfur is released and oxidizes to sulfur dioxide or sulfate.

55. Figure 16.13 Science: Coal-burning power plant. Heat produced by burning pulverized coal in a furnace boils water to produce steam that spins a turbine to produce electricity. The steam is cooled, condensed, and returned to the furnace for reuse. A large cooling tower transfers waste heat to the troposphere. The largest coal-burning power plant in the United States in Indiana burns 23 metric tons (25 tons) of coal per minute or three 100-car trainloads of coal per day and produces 50% more electric power than the Hoover Dam. QUESTION: Is there a coal-burning power plant near where you live or go to school?Figure 16.13 Science: Coal-burning power plant. Heat produced by burning pulverized coal in a furnace boils water to produce steam that spins a turbine to produce electricity. The steam is cooled, condensed, and returned to the furnace for reuse. A large cooling tower transfers waste heat to the troposphere. The largest coal-burning power plant in the United States in Indiana burns 23 metric tons (25 tons) of coal per minute or three 100-car trainloads of coal per day and produces 50% more electric power than the Hoover Dam. QUESTION: Is there a coal-burning power plant near where you live or go to school?

56. COAL Coal reserves in the United States, Russia, and China could last hundreds to over a thousand years. The U.S. has 27% of the world�s proven coal reserves, followed by Russia (17%), and China (13%). In 2005, China and the U.S. accounted for 53% of the global coal consumption.

57. COAL Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel, but compared to oil and natural gas it is not as versatile, has a high environmental impact, and releases much more CO2 into the troposphere.

58. Figure 16.14 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of using coal as an energy resource. QUESTION: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important?Figure 16.14 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of using coal as an energy resource. QUESTION: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important?

59. COAL Coal can be converted into synthetic natural gas (SNG or syngas) and liquid fuels (such as methanol or synthetic gasoline) that burn cleaner than coal. Costs are high. Burning them adds more CO2 to the troposphere than burning coal.

60. COAL Since CO2 is not regulated as an air pollutant and costs are high, U.S. coal-burning plants are unlikely to invest in coal gasification.

61. Figure 16.15 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of using synthetic natural gas (syngas) and liquid synfuels produced from coal. QUESTION: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important?Figure 16.15 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of using synthetic natural gas (syngas) and liquid synfuels produced from coal. QUESTION: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important?

62. NUCLEAR ENERGY When isotopes of uranium and plutonium undergo controlled nuclear fission, the resulting heat produces steam that spins turbines to generate electricity. The uranium oxide consists of about 97% nonfissionable uranium-238 and 3% fissionable uranium-235. The concentration of uranium-235 is increased through an enrichment process.

63. Figure 16.16 Science: light-water�moderated and �cooled nuclear power plant with a pressurized water reactor. QUESTION: How does this plant differ from the coal-burning plant in Figure 16-13?Figure 16.16 Science: light-water�moderated and �cooled nuclear power plant with a pressurized water reactor. QUESTION: How does this plant differ from the coal-burning plant in Figure 16-13?

64. NUCLEAR ENERGY After three or four years in a reactor, spent fuel rods are removed and stored in a deep pool of water contained in a steel-lined concrete container.

65. NUCLEAR ENERGY After spent fuel rods are cooled considerably, they are sometimes moved to dry-storage containers made of steel or concrete.

66. Figure 16.18 Science: the nuclear fuel cycle. QUESTION: Are any parts of the nuclear fuel cycle within 27 kilometers (17 miles) of where you live or go to school?Figure 16.18 Science: the nuclear fuel cycle. QUESTION: Are any parts of the nuclear fuel cycle within 27 kilometers (17 miles) of where you live or go to school?

67. What Happened to Nuclear Power? After more than 50 years of development and enormous government subsidies, nuclear power has not lived up to its promise because: Multi billion-dollar construction costs. Higher operation costs and more malfunctions than expected. Poor management. Public concerns about safety and stricter government safety regulations.

68. Case Study: The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident The world�s worst nuclear power plant accident occurred in 1986 in Ukraine. The disaster was caused by poor reactor design and human error. By 2005, 56 people had died from radiation released. 4,000 more are expected from thyroid cancer and leukemia.

69. NUCLEAR ENERGY In 1995, the World Bank said nuclear power is too costly and risky. In 2006, it was found that several U.S. reactors were leaking radioactive tritium into groundwater.

70. Figure 16.19 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of using the conventional nuclear fuel cycle (Figure 16-18) to produce electricity. QUESTION: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important?Figure 16.19 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages of using the conventional nuclear fuel cycle (Figure 16-18) to produce electricity. QUESTION: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important?

71. NUCLEAR ENERGY A 1,000 megawatt nuclear plant is refueled once a year, whereas a coal plant requires 80 rail cars a day.

72. Figure 16.20 Trade-offs: comparison of the risks of using nuclear power and coal-burning plants to produce electricity. A 1,000-megawatt nuclear plant is refueled once a year, whereas a coal plant of the same size requires 80 rail cars of coal a day. QUESTION: If you had to, would you rather live next door to a coal-fired power plant or a nuclear power plant? Explain.Figure 16.20 Trade-offs: comparison of the risks of using nuclear power and coal-burning plants to produce electricity. A 1,000-megawatt nuclear plant is refueled once a year, whereas a coal plant of the same size requires 80 rail cars of coal a day. QUESTION: If you had to, would you rather live next door to a coal-fired power plant or a nuclear power plant? Explain.

73. NUCLEAR ENERGY Terrorists could attack nuclear power plants, especially poorly protected pools and casks that store spent nuclear fuel rods. Terrorists could wrap explosives around small amounts of radioactive materials that are fairly easy to get, detonate such bombs, and contaminate large areas for decades.

74. NUCLEAR ENERGY When a nuclear reactor reaches the end of its useful life, its highly radioactive materials must be kept from reaching the environment for thousands of years. At least 228 large commercial reactors worldwide (20 in the U.S.) are scheduled for retirement by 2012. Many reactors are applying to extent their 40-year license to 60 years. Aging reactors are subject to embrittlement and corrosion.

75. NUCLEAR ENERGY Building more nuclear power plants will not lessen dependence on imported oil and will not reduce CO2 emissions as much as other alternatives. The nuclear fuel cycle contributes to CO2 emissions. Wind turbines, solar cells, geothermal energy, and hydrogen contributes much less to CO2 emissions.

76. NUCLEAR ENERGY Scientists disagree about the best methods for long-term storage of high-level radioactive waste: Bury it deep underground. Shoot it into space. Bury it in the Antarctic ice sheet. Bury it in the deep-ocean floor that is geologically stable. Change it into harmless or less harmful isotopes.

77. New and Safer Reactors Pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR) are smaller reactors that minimize the chances of runaway chain reactions.

78. Figure 16.21 Pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR): this is one of several new and smaller reactor designs that some nuclear engineers say should improve the safety of nuclear power and reduce its costs. This design reduces chances of a runaway chain reaction by encapsulating uranium fuels in tiny heat-resistant ceramic spheres instead of packing large numbers of fuel pellets into long metal rods.Figure 16.21 Pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR): this is one of several new and smaller reactor designs that some nuclear engineers say should improve the safety of nuclear power and reduce its costs. This design reduces chances of a runaway chain reaction by encapsulating uranium fuels in tiny heat-resistant ceramic spheres instead of packing large numbers of fuel pellets into long metal rods.

79. New and Safer Reactors Some oppose the pebble reactor due to : A crack in the reactor could release radioactivity. The design has been rejected by UK and Germany for safety reasons. Lack of containment shell would make it easier for terrorists to blow it up or steal radioactive material. Creates higher amount of nuclear waste and increases waste storage expenses.

80. NUCLEAR ENERGY Nuclear fusion is a nuclear change in which two isotopes are forced together. No risk of meltdown or radioactive releases. May also be used to breakdown toxic material. Still in laboratory stages. There is a disagreement over whether to phase out nuclear power or keep this option open in case other alternatives do not pan out.