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Understanding Human Sexuality: Theory and Research Chapter 2. Chapter 2 Outline. Theories About Sexuality Psychological theories Psychoanalytic theory Behavioral theory Social learning theory Cognitive theory Humanistic theory Evolutionary theory Biological theory Sociological theories
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Chapter 2 Outline • Theories About Sexuality • Psychological theories • Psychoanalytic theory • Behavioral theory • Social learning theory • Cognitive theory • Humanistic theory • Evolutionary theory • Biological theory • Sociological theories • Feminist theory • Queer theory
Chapter 2 Outline (Cont.) • Sexuality Research: Philosophers, Physicians, and Sexologists • Early sex research • Recent studies on sexuality • Politics and sex research • Sexuality Research • Early promoters of sexology • Sexuality research moves to the U.S. • Research studies on homosexuality • Other sexuality studies • Age-specific studies: teens and seniors
Chapter 2 Outline (Cont.) • Sex Research Methods and Considerations • Case studies • Questionnaires versus interviews • Direct observation • Participant observation • Experimental methods • Correlations
Chapter 2 Outline (Cont.) • Problems and Issues in Sex Research • Ethical issues • Volunteer bias • Samplings problems • Reliability • Sexuality Research Across Cultures • Sex Research in the Future: Beyond Problem-Driven Research
Theory and Research • Theories are the intellectual structure (assumptions, principles, methods) for understanding sexuality • Research helps answer questions about human sexuality • Many disciplines conduct research in sexuality, varying in the questions asked and scientific approaches taken
Theories About Sexuality • Many theories guide our thoughts about human sexuality • Most theorists utilize multiple perspectives
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the father of psychoanalysis, set the stage for all other psychological theories.
Psychoanalytic Theory • Freud (1856-1939) • Most influential psychological theory of sexuality • Sex drive is a very important life force • Two controversial concepts: • Personality formation • Psychosexual development
Personality Formation • Two drives (motivations): • Libido – life or sexual motivation • Thanatos – death or aggressiveness motivation • Two divisions to personality: • Three levels of operation • conscious, preconscious, unconscious • Three guiding identities • id, ego, superego
Levels of Operation • Conscious – information in awareness • Preconscious – information within recall, but not in awareness • Unconscious – inaccessible, the most important level of operation
Guiding Identities • Id – seeks immediate satisfaction • Ego – operates in reality; balances id and superego • Superego – values & restrictions; conscience • Psychoanalysis required if ego does not balance id and superego • Psychoanalysis brings unconscious thoughts into consciousness
Psychosexual Development • Basic personality formed within the first six years of life • Stages of development • Corresponding erogenous zones where libidinal energy is directed • Unsuccessful progression through each stage could result in fixation • Fixation occurs when libidinal energy is caught in that stage’s zone
Psychosexual Stages of Development Stage (time period): Zone • Oral (0-18 months): Mouth • Anal (18 months-3 years): Anus • Phallic (3-6 years): Genitals (Penis/Clitoris) • Boys: Oedipus complex, castration anxiety • Girls: Electra complex, penis envy • Latency (6 years-puberty): None • Genital (puberty-death): Genitals • No fixations resulted in a heterosexual adult
Behavioral Theory • Only study overt behavior; ignore internal states • Operant conditioning (Skinner) • reinforcement • punishment • Behavior modification – tool to change unwanted behavior • Aversion therapy
Social Learning Theory • Bandura • Basis in operant conditioning • Also consider internal events in affecting behavior • Identification and imitation of same-sex parent in development of our gender identity • Peer pressure influence on our sexuality
Cognitive Theory • Individual differences in processing information • Behavior is a result of our perceptions and conceptualizations of our environment • Largest sex organ – the brain • We are sexually aroused by what we think is sexually arousing
Humanistic Theory • Self-actualization – we try to be the best we can become • Unconditional positive regard allows us to become self-actualized
Biological Theory • Our sexuality is controlled by our physiology, genetics • Sexual problems due to physiological causes; interventions include medications or surgery
Evolutionary Theory • Combination of evolution and sociology • Sexuality serves mainly to reproduce • Primary goal is to pass on one’s genes • Consider mater preferences from an evolutionary perspective
Sociological Theory • Sexual expression varies across societies • Institutions influence rules societies hold regarding the expression of sexuality • Family • Religion • Economy • Medicine • Law • Media
Feminist Theory • Sexology is dominated by white, middle-class, heterosexist attitudes • Sexuality research is based on male sexuality • Social construction of sexuality based on power, historically held by men • Women as passive and submissive • Sexuality used by men to maintain power over women • Lack research on female orgasm, satisfaction
Queer Theory • Heterosexism and homophobia should be resisted • Heterosexism is not the norm, with all else deviant • Sexual categories are cultural constructions that limit and restrain
Early Sexuality Research • Variety of disciplines • Focus on abnormal and unhealthy practices • Victorian period (19th century) suspended sexuality research until physicians made it an appropriate topic as related to medicine • Primarily studied in Europe
Early Sexuality Research (Cont.) • Early 20th century it earned legitimacy with Freud, Ellis, and Bloch • Moved to the United States in 1920s, encouraged by the social hygiene movement • Limited funding for research
Recent Sexuality Research • Late 1980s, early 1990s increase in sexuality research • Prompted by HIV/AIDS • Primarily “problem-driven” research, not healthy sexuality • Pressure from conservative groups • Multiple disciplines studying sex has fragmented research
Recent Sexuality Research (Cont.) • Popular media sensationalizes and distorts information • Sexologist – researcher, educator, clinician specializing in sexuality; usually PhD • Researchers feel pressure to research select topics and avoid others • Academic programs specializing in human sexuality; need steady funding
Politics and Sex Research • Sexuality research changes with the political climate • Changing roles of women, development of birth control pills, and Kinsey’s work led to less acceptance for the double standard • HIV/AIDS crisis provided a new opportunity for sex research • Political resistance even today
Early Promoters of Sexology • Bloch (1872-1922): Published the Journal of Sexology beginning 1914 • Moll (1862-1939): In 1913, began the International Society for Sex Research; authored sexology books • Hirschfeld (1868-1935): Worked to better the treatment of homosexuals and bisexuals; developed an Institute for Sexology
Early Promoters of Sexology (Cont.) • Krafft-Ebing (1840-1902): Sexual pathology • Ellis (1859-1939): Published six-volume work on sexuality; refuted deviance of homosexuality and masturbation • All early researchers legitimized the study of sexuality • Findings lacked consistency and organization
Sexuality Research Moves to the United States • Mosher (1863-1940): First to ask Americans about their sexual behavior; helped married women have better sex lives • Bement Davis (1861-1935): Prostitution and STIs; homosexuality is not abnormal
Katharine Bement Davis (1861 – 1935) conducted some of the largest and most comprehensive sexuality studies to date.
Sexuality Research Moves to the United States (Cont.) • Kinsey (1894-1956): Most influential modern sexuality researcher • Atheoretical in the beginning because data on sexuality was lacking • He and 3 colleagues interviewed 18,000 subjects to obtain sexual life histories • Preferred use of 100% sampling • 1947, established the Institute for Sex Research
Sexuality Research Moves to the United States (Cont.) • Kinsey • 1948: Sexual Behavior in the Human Male • 1953: Sexual Behavior in the Human Female • Found many unacceptable activities to be widely practiced • Controversial work; had funding sources taken away
Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956) implemented the first large-scale survey of adult sexual behavior in the United States.
Sexuality Research in the United States (Cont.) • Hunt: Playboy Foundation study of American sexual behaviors (1974); volunteer bias prevents generalizability • Masters & Johnson: In 1954, began to study the anatomy and physiology of intercourse in the laboratory • Electrocardiograph • Electromyograph • Penile strain gauges • Photoplethysmographs
Virginia Johnson and William Masters were the first to bring sexuality into the laboratory.
To measure physiological changes during sexual arousal, researches rely on strain gauges and photoplethysmographs. A penile strain gauge is placed on the base of the penis to measure erectile changes in the penis, while a photoplethysmograph is inserted in the vaginal canal to measure changes I vaginal lubrication.
Sexuality Research in the United States (Cont.) • Masters & Johnson: Human Sexual Response (1966) • Four stage model • Women may have multiple orgasms • Sexuality stays with us as we age • Masters & Johnson: Human Sexual Inadequacy (1970) • Vaginal orgasms from clitoral stimulation
Research Studies Homosexuality • Few large-scale studies • Hooker: Early 1950s; professionals could not differentiate gay and straight males • Bell & Weinberg: Homosexualities (1978) • majority of homosexual men and women do not conform to stereotypes • aren’t sexual predators • homosexuals and heterosexuals are similar in intimate relationships
Dr. Evelyn Hooker published the first empirical study to challenge the psychiatric view that homosexuality was a mental illness. Her work ultimately led to the removal of homosexuality from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manualof Mental Disorders.
Research Studies Homosexuality • The Janus Report (1993): large survey on sexual behavior in the U.S.; sectioned out regions in the U.S.; not a random sample • National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS): Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, & Michaels (1994); surveyed a representative sample of the U.S. on sexual behaviors and attitudes
Age-Specific Studies: Teens and Seniors • Teens • National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2002) • National Survey of Adolescent Males (2002) • Seniors • Starr & Weiner (1981): Sexuality still important for seniors • Love, Sex, and Aging (1984)
Sex Research Methods and Considerations • Case study – thorough examination of one or few participants • Validity – accuracy of measurement • Reliability – consistency of measurement • Generalizability – ability of sample to be applicable to the population
Sex Research Methods and Considerations (Cont.) • Case studies – individual cases explored to form hypotheses; Freud • Questionnaires versus interviews – self-report attitudes, behavior, knowledge; Kinsey • Anonymity • Direct observation – focus on behaviors; Masters and Johnson • difficult to find subjects in sexuality research; expensive
Sex Research Methods and Considerations (Cont.) • Participant observation – researchers monitor within a natural environment; research conducted in a bar; much sexual behavior is in private • Experimental method – establish cause and effect due to increased control • Random assignment • Independent variable – manipulated • Dependent variable – measured • Costly, artificial, results may not relate to the real world; ethical constraints
Sex Research Methods and Considerations (Cont.) • Correlations – describes a relationship between variables • Used when experiments are not possible • Cannot establish cause and effect
Problems and Issues in Sex Research • Ethical Issues – informed consent, confidentiality • Volunteer Bias – there are differences between volunteers and nonvolunteers; poor generalizability • Sampling Problems – samples of convenience (college students); generalizability questioned • Reliability – changes over time; memory
Sexuality Research Across Cultures • Human Sexual Behaviors (1971) – one of the largest cultural studies • Many commonalities, differences • Analyse des Comportements Sexuels en France (1992) and NHSLS (2001) compared sexual behavior in France and the U.S. • Pfizer Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors (2002) – 1st global examination of behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, satisfaction