BIODIVERSITY

1. BIODIVERSITY “The last word I ignorance is the person who says of an animal or plant: ‘What good is it?’… It the land mechanism as a whole is good then every part of it is good, whether we understand it or not…Harmony with the land is like harmony with a friend; you cannot cherish his right and chop off his left.” Aldo Leopold

2. What is Biodiversity • Genetic biodiversity • Species diversity • Endangered, threatened, extinct species • Ecological (ecosystem) diversity

3. Species • Defining a species • Problems with definition • Hybridization • Geographical isolation • Morphological • Genetic fingerprinting (pawprinting :-) • Real life application - the red wolf • Can a subspecies be protected? – not according to ESA

4. How Many Species • Over 2 million known • Numbers may up to 50 million, maybe 30 million insects • Inverts 70% of known & may be 90% of existing species • Most in tropics, coral reefs • Incredible diversity – ocean cold and thermal vents • prokaryotes, invertebrates

5. Extinction is Forever • Through natural extintion, at least 99% of all species have become extinct • So, why worry???

6. Natural Extinction • Natural evolution - “genes” may remain from evolutionary predecessors • Mass extinction: end of reptile age (over 1/2 of all animals extinct) • Open niches provide opportunities for speciation through adaptive radiation • Background extinction rate perhaps one species per decade in undisturbed ecosystem

7. Human Caused Extinction • Rate far, far exceeds background extinction rate • Extinction is genetic dead end • Speciation will not follow – niches destroyed • After mass extinctions – over 5 million years for species diversity to recover! • “Humans” on earth at best 3 ½ million years • What will be the effect of loss of biodiversity on the human species?

8. Human Activities and Biodiversity • Degradation of 40-50% terrestrial ecosystems (see next slide) - #1 cause is agriculture • Wetlands – ½ lost since about 1900 • Global forest cover – reduced 20-50% • Coral reefs at least 27% severely damaged, 70% damages • Current global extinction between at least 100, probably 1000 to 10,000 times as before human impacted environment • At least 20-30% of current species in danger of premature extinction

9. Figure 1-5Page 7 Arctic Circle Arctic Circle Tropic of Cancer Equator Tropic of Capricorn Human disturbance Antarctic Circle Predominantly natural Partiallydisturbed Humandominated

10. Biome % of Area Disturbed Figure 22-14Page 574 Temperate broadleaf forests 94% Temperate evergreen forests 94% Temperate grasslands 72% Mixed mountain systems 71% Tropical dry forests 70% Subtropical and temperate rain forests 67% Cold deserts and semideserts 55% Mixed island systems 53% Warm deserts and semideserts 44% Tropical humid forests 37% Tropical grasslands 26% Temperate boreal forests 18% Tundra 0.7%

11. Figure 22-3Page 562 1% Probably extinct 7% Critically imperiled 8% Imperiled 16% Vulnerable 1% Other 67% Secure or apparently secure

12. Figure 22-2Page 561 Deforestation Deforestation Changes in water supply and temperature Changes in water supply and temperature Loss and fragmentation of habitat Loss and fragmentation of habitat Water use and pollution and soil nutrient loss Freshwater supply and demand Food supply and demand Water availability Changes in precipitation and temperature Erosion, pollution, and changes in water flow CO2, CH4, N2O emissions Habitat change and fragmentation of habitat Forest product supply and demand Climate change CO2 emission Changes in transpiration and albedo Loss and fragmentation of habitat Loss of crop genetic diversity Reduced resistance to change Habitat change Biodiversity loss

13. So, What’s the Big Deal (22-3) • Instrumental vs. Intrinsic value • Instrumental- utilitarian • Can we place a price tag? (pg 571 Spotlight) • Medicines • Crops originally wild – genetic diversity • Antibiotics • Microbes – cleanup, genes, etc. • Ecological services (4-34 – next slide) • Recreation and ecotourism • Nonutilitarian • Existence • Aesthetic • Intrinsic – life, ecosystems have inherent “right” to survive

14. Benefits of Biodiversity • Food- • especially genetic “bank” to improve domestic crops • many potentially valuable food plants • Drugs and medicine - studying native cultures • Ecological benefits • Aesthetic and cultural benefits

15. Figure 4-34Page 92 Solar Capital Air resources and purification Climate control Recycling vital chemicals Water resources and purification Renewable energy resources Soil formation and renewal Natural Capital Nonrenewable energy resources Waste removal and detoxification Nonrenewable mineral resources Natural pest and disease control Potentially renewable matter resources Biodiversity and gene pool

16. “Canaries in the Coal Mine” ?? • Read Why are amphibians vanishing? (pg 171) • Read The plight of migrating birds (pg. 575)

17. Figure 22-15Page 574 Cerulean warbler Sprague’s pipit Bichnell’s thrush Blacked-capped vireo Golden-cheeked warbler Florida scrub jay California gnatcatcher Kirtland’s warbler Henslow’s sparrow Bachman’s warbler

18. Habitat loss #1Cause of Biodiversity Loss • Temperate biomes most affected to this point • Agriculture, development, water development are top 3 in North America • Habitat fragmentation • No longer genetically or reproductively viable • Increased “edge” where environment much different than “interior” of a habitat

19. Habitat Alteration • Pollution • Global climate change • Polar bear

20. Exotic Species Introduction #2 Cause of Biodiversity Loss • Plants: • Purple loosestrife, honeysuckle, multifloral rose, kudzu vine • Plant diseases- many crop • Forest in PA- Dutch elm disease, American chestnut blight • Terrestrial animals • Pigeons, starlings, European sparrow, Norway rat • Insects: gypsy moth, Japanese beetle, stink bug fire ant, Formosan termite • Aquatic animals • Zebra mussels, sea lamprey • Feral animals - cats and dogs; European pigs (southern U.S.)

21. Threats of BiodiversityIntroduced Species • Exotic species introduction • Plants: Purple loosestrife, honeysuckle, multifloral rose • Zebra mussels • Canada Goose • Red Eared Slider • Feral animals - cats and dogs • Diseases-American chestnut blight, Dutch elm disease, and Hemlock Wooly Adelgid • Insects: Asian long-horned beetle, Stink Bugs

22. Figure 22-17 (2)Page 576 Sea lamprey (attached to lake trout) Argentina fire ant Brown tree snake Eurasian muffle Common pigeon (Rock dove) Formosan termite Zebra mussel Asian long-horned beetle Asian tiger mosquito Gypsy moth larvae Exotic and Introduced Species

23. Figure 22-17 (1)Page 576 Purple looselife European starling African honeybee (“Killer bee”) Nutria Salt cedar (Tamarisk) Marine toad Water hyacinth Japanese beetle Hydrilla European wild boar (Feral pig)

24. Exploitation – direct killing (read 22-6) • Fishing- overharvesting • Great Whales • Market hunting, subsistence hunting • American passenger pigeon, great whales, buffalo • Many island species • Poaching – over $8 billion per year • Gorillas, pandas, large cats, rhinos, elephants • Predator “control” – • Wolves, coyotes, eagles • Exotic pet trade • Orchids, cacti, parrots, macaws, marine tropical fish

25. Figure 22-23Page 584

26. PA Endangered Species • Fish, Reptiles, and Amphibians • PA Fish and Boat Commission • Birds and mammals – • PA Game Commission • Wildlife Management Success Stories

27. Wildlife ManagementOnce PA Extirpated – Welcome Back

28. Protecting Biodiversity • Wildlife Management • Hunting and fishing laws • Habitat protection and enhancement • Laws • Lacey Act of 1900 – prevented commercial market hunting of wild animals • Endangered Species Act-1973 (583) • CITES (582) • Marine Mammal Protection Act • Habitat protection- parks and refugees • Zoos and botanical preserves • Captive breeding and release programs – peregrines, Cal. Condors, many endangered fish – sturgeon in PA • Capture and release programs – eagles, wolves, sea and river otters

29. Endangered Species Act • Classifications • Endangered • Threatened • Vulnerable • Agencies – • National Marine Fisheries Services • U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service • PA State Agencies • PA Fish and Boat Commission • PA Game Commission • PA Department of Forestry • PA DCNR • Regulates • Taking in any form (READ “The Regulatory Takings Controversy” on page 725) • Habitat protection • Harassment or interference during breeding • Federal agencies – nothing that jeopardizes endangered species

30. ESA - Numbers and Classification • Regulates “taking” in any form • Read “The regulatory takings controversy” page 725 • 1250 listed - endangered & threatened species • Nature Conservancy – say 30,000 should be • Hundreds of species “warranted but precluded” from protection - just no staff or dollars • Federal budget 2002- $126 million (1/3 cost of one C-17 transport, $.44 per year per citizen) • Where should money be spent? • Habitat protection vs. a few “poster” species? • Identify and protect keystone species • Species “bias” • Vertebrates: 91% • Invertebrates: 75% or more of U.S. species, yet only 9% of listed species

31. Recovery Plans • Fish and Wildlife Service • $150 M per year, 1/2 on 10 species • $5 M for 137 inverts/532 plants • 25% no recovery plan • Successes: peregrine, bald eagle, alligator • Controversy: snail darter and Tellico dam • Controversy: spotted owl • Controversy: reintroduction of Yellowstone wolves

32. Minimum Viable Populations • Small populations - below often difficult to determine critical level- face extinction • Island biogeography-small islands, fewer species • Problem: genetic inbreeding • Demographic bottleneck: • population in limited habitat-natural catastrophe-remainder very genetic diversity

33. Zoos and “Seaworlds” • Controversy • “reservation and public education - or another expression of human dominance? • Exposure of people to wild animals • Who do we protect - only the “human defined” as beautiful and interesting? • Breeding programs - reduce genetic inbreeding- peregrine falcon as example

34. Ecotourism

35. Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Chapters 23

36. Summary of Text Sections • Land use - U.S. and world (595-596) • Managing forests (598-600) • What is happening to forests (604-608) • U.S. forest resources (609) • Tropical Deforestation (612-619) • Managing parks (619-621) • Wilderness (627) • Ecological restoration - (628-629)

37. The Wolf Controversy (594) • 1973 - around 500 in loser 48 • Why over 2 million shot between 1850 and 1900? • USFWS reintroduction 1987 • Who protested this reintroduction? • How does NPS and Defenders of Wildlife deal with upset ranchers?

38. Land Use in the World Fig. 23-2 p. 595

39. Rangeland and pasture 29% Land Use in the United States Fig. 23-3 p. 595

40. Types of US Public Lands • Multiple-use lands: • National Forests • BLM • National Forest Service in Dept of Agr. • Moderately-restricted use lands: National Wildlife Refuges - USFWS • Restricted-use lands: • National Park System- Dept of Interior • National Wilderness Preservation System • Wilderness Act of 1964 (pg 627) • Preservationist philosophy

41. US Public Lands Fig. 23-4 p. 596

42. Wildlife Refuges • Teddy Roosevelt - 1901 • 511 in the system • Hunting not only allowed, but in many have become number one activity

43. Land Use In PA • Pennsylvania Land Area 28,863,000 acres • Forested (Public and Private) 20,078,000 acres • State Forest Land 2,100,000 acres • State Forest Wild Areas 145,000 acres • Protected Natural Areas 79,000 acres • Even if we protect all 145,000 acres of state forest wild areas, only a fraction of Pennsylvania - less than 1% - will be left wild and protected for future generations to enjoy.

44. Forest Structure Vertical Stratification in the deciduous forest Fig. 23-9 p. 601

45. Controversies: How to Use Public Lands • Livestock and U.S. public rangeland • 2% of cattle and 10% of sheep on BLM land • relatively low costs for grazing fees • Logging (510) • old growth forests - how much should be cut • Forest Service loses money - subsidy to forest companies • Road construction - big issue in wilderness areas

46. What is happening to world’s forests (604) • Reduced by 50% over past 8000 years, much since 1970 • Rapidly degraded faster than sustainable yield, especially tropical areas • About 12% protected, much “only on paper”

47. Figure 23-18 (1)Page 609 Virgin forests, 1620

48. Figure 23-18 (2)Page 609 Virgin forests, 1998

49. Figure 23-15Page 605 Greater than 0.5% net increase Greater than 0.5% decrease

50. Pathogens and Insects Fungal Diseases • Chestnut blight • Dutch elm disease Am Chestnut Native Range and Fungus Insect Pests • Bark beetles