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BIOLOGYYYYY 1.0

BIOLOGYYYYY 1.0. CET Reviewer. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATIONS. Unicellular organisms – perform all life functions by themselves ( Nutrition, respiration, movement, excretion, growth, sensitivity, reproduction). BIOSPHERE BIOME ECOSYSTEM COMMUNITY POPULATION

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BIOLOGYYYYY 1.0

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  1. BIOLOGYYYYY1.0 CET Reviewer

  2. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATIONS • Unicellular organisms – perform all life functions by themselves • (Nutrition, respiration, movement, excretion, growth, sensitivity, reproduction) BIOSPHERE BIOME ECOSYSTEM COMMUNITY POPULATION ORGANISM SYSTEMS ORGANS TISSUES CELLS ORGANELLES ATOMS Multicellular organisms – has individual cells that perform specific functions

  3. Specialized plant cells • Root hair cell: increases water and nutrient absorption • Palisade cell: has lots of chloroplast increases the absorption of light for photosynthesis • Epidermal: tightly packed, secretes a waxy cuticle  protects from excessive water loss Specialized animal cells • Red blood cell: no nucleus = bi-concave shape  increases surface area: better oxygen absorption and transport • Sperm cell: with a movable tail; has lots of mitochondria  greater energy • Neuron: for interconnectivity/information transfer through impulses sent throughout the body; has a myelin sheath that insulates the nerve fiber.

  4. ENZYMES too! • “biological catalysts” = changes the rate of a reactionwithout the enzyme being changed itself • Combine with molecules (substrates)  enzyme-substrate complex • Enzyme reactions: • Anabolic: building up  larger molecules (synthetic reaction) • Catabolic: breaking down  smaller molecules (degradative reaction)

  5. PHOTOSYNTHESIS • For autotrophs/producers: Light energy from the sun  chemical energy (glucose) 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + O2 (Carbon dioxide + water  Glucose + Oxygen) • Parts: • Light reaction: dependent on light; in the photosystems of the thylakoid • Light energy Water oxidized to oxygen  Energy: ATP and NADPH2 • Dark reaction (Calvin Cycle): dependent on temperature; in the stroma • ATP and NADPH2  reduce CO2  reduced carbon = organic carbon (Glucose) Light energy Chlorphyll

  6. Quick terms! ATP = Adenosinetriphosphate NADPH2 = Nicotinamideadeninedinucleotide phosphate

  7. The Chloroplast Chlorophyll: • Absorbs red, violet and blue; reflects green • Most abundant forms: chlorophyll a and b • Embedded in the thylakoid

  8. CELLULAR RESPIRATION • Sugars/carbohydrates + Oxygen  ENERGY, water and carbon dioxide C6H12O6 + O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy • Parts: • Glycolosis: cytoplasm, no oxygen; glucose  pyruvate • Kreb’s Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle: inside the mitochondria; needs oxygen

  9. HOMEOSTASIS • Organism maintaining constant internal conditions necessary for life • Cell and molecular physiology: • diffusion,osmosis, passive transport, active transport • System/organ physiology: (body temp = 37/98.6 F; hypothalamus = thermostat) • Endocrine system • Thermoregulation • skeletal muscles = shivering, • non-shivering thermogenesis: decomposing of fat  heat; sweating

  10. Chemical regulation • Pancreas: insulin and glucagon for lower blood-sugar concentration • Lungs: CO2  O2; • kidneys: remove urea, adjusts the concentration of water and ions) • Organism/ecological physiology: Adaptation • genes change  phenotypes change • extended phenotypes • reverse engineering

  11. CELLULAR BIOLOGY • CELL THEORY: proposed by Matthias JakobSchleidenand Theodor Schwann • All organisms are composed of one or more cells. • A cell is the organism’s basic unit of structure and function. • All cells come from previously existing cells. • The continuity of life is based on inheritable information in the form of DNA.

  12. TYPES OF CELLS PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES With distinct nucleus With organelles Only some have locomotion parts Protoctista (Protists), Fungi, Plantae, Animalia • DNA region: nucleoid • No organelles, except ribosomes • Locomotion (common) • Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Halophiles, Methanogens, Thermophiles

  13. PROKARYOTIC CELL

  14. EUKARYOTIC

  15. EUKARYOTIC

  16. MAIN REGION: Nucleus • control center of the cell • contains DNA

  17. MAIN REGION: Plasma Membrane • contains the cell contents and separates them

  18. MAIN REGION: Cytoplasm • cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma • site of most cellular activities

  19. MAJOR ORGANELLES WITHIN THE CYTOPLASM • Golgi Apparatus • “traffic conductor” for cellular proteins • functions in modifying and packaging of proteins • sends out proteins for export via secretory vesicles • Lysosome • “breakdown bodies” • contains hydrolytic enzymes that break down proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids • also digests disease-causing bacteria

  20. MAJOR ORGANELLES WITHIN THE CYTOPLASM • Peroxisome • membrane sacs containing powerful oxidase enzymes • disarms dangerous free radicalsby converting them to hyrdogen peroxide • Centrioles • rod-shaped bodies • direct the formation of mitotic spindle • Cytoskeleton • cell‘s “bones and muscles • provides an internal framework

  21. MAJOR ORGANELLES WITHIN THE CYTOPLASM • Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum • continuation of the rough ER • functions in cholesterol synthesis and fat metabolism • detoxification of drugs • Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum • studded with ribosomes • where proteins from ribosomes assume their functional shapes • sends proteins to the GA via transport vesicles

  22. CELLULAR REPRODUCTION

  23. CELLULAR DIVISION: Mitosis • occurs in animals and plants for growth and repair • results in 2 identical, diploid, daughter cells • basis for asexual reproductionin unicellular organisms, allowing rapid population growth

  24. CELLULAR DIVISION: Mitosis

  25. MITOSIS: Interphase • period between mitosis and meiosis • divided into 3 sub phases: • G1 • preparation for chromosome or DNA replication • S • DNA replication • G2 • preparation for mitosis or meiosis

  26. MITOSIS: Prophase • centrosomes form spindle poles • spindle fibers begin to form and are organized • nuclear envelope disintegrates • nucleolus disappears

  27. MITOSIS: Metaphase • chromosomes move to equator or metaphase plate • sister centromeres become attached to spindle fibers from opposite poles

  28. MITOSIS: Anaphase • starts when kinetochores separate and chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell

  29. MITOSIS: Telophase • chromatids reach the poles of the cell • nuclear envelope forms • nucleolus reappears

  30. CELLULAR DIVISION: Meiosis • results in four haploid, daughter cells • basis for gamete production in sexual reproduction • as it results in halving of the chromosome number, meiosis is also called reduction division

  31. CELLULAR DIVISION: Meiosis

  32. MEIOSIS: Interphase • “resting stage” • chromosomes are very long and thin • towards the end, chromosomes have already made replica chromatids joined by centromeres

  33. MEIOSIS: Prophase I • nuclear envelope disintegrates • nucleolus disappears • tetrads form • crossing-over occurs

  34. MEIOSIS: Metaphase I • after crossing-over, homologous chromosomes move to the equator of the cell

  35. MEIOSIS: Anaphase I • homologous chromosomes start to separate and move to opposite poles

  36. MEIOSIS: Telophase I • cell divides into two daughter cells • nuclear envelope develops • marks the end of the first phase of meiotic division

  37. MEIOSIS II • division of two daughter cells from meiosis I • similar to mitosis but there is no replication of chromosomes • results in 4 cells which are haploid

  38. CELLULAR DIVISION

  39. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY • seeks to understand the molecular basis of life – particular it relates the structure of specific molecules of biological importance to their functional role in the intact cell and organism • Genetic Code • Degenerate– many combinations correspond to a single amino acid • Wobbleposition– position in the code that varies • BASE PAIRING (DNA) • Adenine – Thymine • Guanine – Cytosine • BASE PAIRING (RNA) • Adenine – Uracil • Guanine – Cytosine

  40. THE CENTRAL DOGMA

  41. THE CENTRAL DOGMA • REPLICATION • semi-conservative process – daughter cells would contain one strand of the parent DNA and one strand of the new DNA • occurs in the nucleus • TRANSLATION • process where DNA is copied into a single stranded RNA • occurs in the nucleus • productmRNA moves to cytoplasm

  42. THE CENTRAL DOGMA • TRANSLATION • occurs in ribosomeswhere mRNA is translated into proteins • governed by the genetic code which combination of three bases or triplet directs the addition of a particular amino acid to the growing protein chain • Start and Stop Codons signals start and end of translation ** Start codons: AUG (methionine) Stop codons: UAG, UGA, UAA

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