Chapter 4

1. Classical Civilization in the Mediterranean Chapter 4

2. The framers of the American Constitution were extremely conscious of Greek and Roman precedents. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle Greek political institutions rose and then declined and the legions of Rome assumed leadership Romans carefully preserved most Greek achievements (although there were differences) Rome specialized in engineering; Greece specialized in Scientific thought Rome created a mighty Empire; Greece created city-states However, Rome and Greece had a common religion and artistic styles, along with similar economic structures

5. Civilization in the Middle East Inherited many of the achievements of Mesopotamia By 550 B.C.E. Cyrus the Great established the massive Persian Empire Tolerant of local customs Zoroastrianism Ultimately toppled by the Greek-educated conqueror Alex the Great Persian empire

7. A. Greece. Island of Crete showed results of Egyptian influence (2000 B.C.E.) – monumental architecture Early kingdom in southern Greece developed by 1400 B.C.E. around the city of Mycenae; Indo-European invaders destroyed civilization around 800 B.C.E. I. Greek and roman history

9. Rise of civilization in Greece between 800 and 600 B.C.E. was based on the creation of strong city-states (geographical restrictions) Governments varied – tyranny; aristocratic council Trade developed rapidly Common cultural forms – rich written language (Phoenician alphabet) Athletic competitions of the Olympic games

12. Sparta – strong military aristocracy dominating a slave population Athens – more diverse commercial state; slave population; artistic and intellectual leadership Sparta and Athens cooperated to defeat Persians (Persian War – 500 to 470 B.C.E.)

13. 1. Pericles Dominated Athenian politics Democratic political structure – each citizen could participate to select officials and pass laws Ultimately, his guidance could not prevent the tragic war between Athens and Sparta (Peloponnesian Wars : 431 B.C.E. – 404 B.C.E.)

15. 2. Hellenistic Ambitious kings from Macedonia, in the northern part of the peninsula soon conquered the cities Philip of Macedonia won crucial battle in 338 B.C.E. Alexander the Great Hellenistic culture – Greek art and culture merged with other Middle Eastern forms

16. B. Rome The rise of Rome formed the final phase of classical Mediterranean civilization, for by the first century B.C.E., Rome had subjugated Greece and Hellenistic kingdoms alike. The Romans thus early acquired a strong military bent, though initially they may have been driven to protect their own territory from possible rivals. The Roman republic spread more widely during the three Punic Wars (with rival city state Carthage), from 264 to 146 B.C.E. A series of emperors continued to expand the reign of the Roman republic, bringing peace and prosperity to virtually the entire Mediterranean world, from Spain and North Africa in the West to the eastern shores of the great sea. The emperors also moved northward, conquering France and southern Britain and pushing into Germany. Then the empire suffered a slow but decisive fall, which consumed over 250 years, until invading peoples from the north finally overturned the government in Rome in 476 C.E.

18. 1. Julius Ceaser Roman general Claimed himself dictator of Rome Civil war - 45 B.C.E. Led to the effective end of the traditional institutions of the Roman state

20. Polis – Greek word for city-state The “good life” for an upper-class Athenian or Roman included active participation in politics and frequent discussions about the affairs of the state. Citizens actively participated in military Sense of political interest and responsibility II. Greek and roman political institutions

21. Monarchy not preferred Tyranny – many tyrants were effective rulers, promoting public works and protecting the common people against the abuses of the aristocracy.

22. Greek Political Culture • Democracy was formed in the Athenian city-state • In the 5th century, the major decisions of the state were made by general assemblies in which all citizens could participate (direct democracy) • Assembly met every 10 days

23. Women had no rights of political participation. Half of adult males were not citizens at all (slaves or foreigners) Athens found leadership in many aristocrats (including Pericles) Aristocracy – “rule of the best”

24. Sparta was governed by a singularly militaristic aristocracy Retained power over large slave population

25. B. Roman Political Culture • Roman Republic • All Roman citizens could gather in periodic assemblies, not to pass basic laws but rather to elect various magistrates • Magistrates would represent the interests of the common people • Senate • Consuls

26. What held the Roman Empire together? Tolerance for local customs and religion Strong military organization Carefully crafted laws (codified, equitable law) Clear legal codes designed to balance the defense of private property with the protection of poor people Access to courts of law administered by fellow citizens

27. Twelve Tables (450 B.C.E.) – restrain the upper classes from arbitrary action and to subject them to some common legal principles The idea of Roman law was that rules, objectively judged, rather than personal whim should govern social relationships Who was responsible? Barber, catcher, pitcher? (example from pg. 74)

28. Any non-Romans were given the right of citizenship Citizenship – full access to Rome-appointed judges and uniform laws Key political achievement: the idea of fair and reasoned law, to which officers of the state should themselves be subject to

29. Athens and Rome placed great premium on the importance of military conquest Mediterranean governments regulated some branches of commerce (securing vital supplies of grain) Roman state built countless stadiums and public baths. Why? Later Roman emperors – Godlike Tolerant of other religions? How about Judaism and Christianity?

30. Roman Empire – Christianity (Emperor Constantine legalized 313 CE; Emperor Theodosius made it empire’s official religion 380 CE) The characteristic Greco-Roman religion was a much more primitive affair, derived from a belief in the sprits of nature elevated into a complex set of gods and goddesses who were seen as regulating human life Greeks and Romans had different names for their pantheon, but the objects of worship were essentially the same III. Religion and culture

31. Zeus – creator or father God Apollo – sun Neptune – oceans Mars – war Venus – human love and beauty Regular ceremonies to the gods had real political importance, and many individuals sought the gods’ aid in foretelling the future or in ensuring a good harvest or good health

32. This dominant religion also had a number of limitations. Peasants/upper-class members left unsatisfied by the religion. Why? (pg 77)

33. In Athens, Socrates (469 B.C.E.) encouraged his pupils to question conventional wisdom “the improvement of the soul” Socrates not liked by Athenian government; seen as undermining political loyalty Suicide or exile Legacy: Socratic Method

34. Socrates’ great pupil Plato – human reason could approach an understanding of the three perfect forms; the absolutely True, Good, and Evil, which he believed characterized nature (philosophical tradition in Greece) Celebrated the human ability to think Emphasis on questioning everything

35. The Greeks were not outstanding empirical scientists. Relatively few new scientific findings came from Athens, or later from Rome. Mathematician Euclid – geometry Ptolemy – theory of sun’s motion around a stationary earth Romans – engineering achievements (great roads and aqueducts that carried water to cities large and small)

36. Rome was famous for was their system of roads. Romans built over 53,000 miles (85,000 kilometers) of roads to connect every part of their empire. The roads were mostly built by the army and were all done by hand. The system of roads connected together every province in the empire. The Romans had a saying "All roads lead to Rome." One could start traveling on a Roman road in northwest Africa, travel around the entire Mediterranean sea, end up in Rome and never have left a Roman road.

37. Mediterranean civilization – art and literature are key cultural values Religion – justification for temples, statues, and plays devoted to the glories of gods Artists emphasized the beauty of realistic portrayals of human form Poets and playwrights used the gods as foils for inquiries into the human condition

38. Greek dramatists produced both comedy and tragedy Athenian dramatist Sophocles – here Oedipus (portrayed the psychological flaws of the individual; potentially unhealthy relationship between a man and his mother) Homer (poet) – Iliad and Odyssey Roman writers made significant contributions to poetry and to definitions of the poetic form that would long be used in Western literature Latin language

39. In visual arts, the emphasis of classical Mediterranean civilization was sculpture and architecture Greek architecture emphasized monumental construction with columned porticos Greeks invented “classical” architecture (although influenced by Egyptian models)

40. Roman architects adopted the Greek themes Engineering skill allowed them to construct buildings of even greater size Under the empire, the Romans learned how to add domes to rectangular buildings Classical Mediterranean art and architecture were intimately linked with the society that produced them

41. Politics and formal culture in Greece and Rome were mainly affairs of the cities (minority of population) Most Greeks and Romans were farmers Reasons for decline of Roman Empire: large landowners begun using more slaves, displacing small farms; devalued currency (inflation); political instability; outside invasion IV. Economy and society in the mediterranean

42. Farming in Greece and in much of Italy was complicated by the fact that soil conditions were not ideal for grain growing (yet grain was the staple for life) Shift to the production of olives and grapes (used primarily for cooking and wine making) Farmers who produced grapes and olives had to buy some of the food they needed, and they had to sell most of their own product in order to do this.

43. Many farmers went in debt because planting olive trees or grape vines required substantial capital, for they would not bear fruit for at least five years after planting The rise of commercial agriculture in Greece and around Rome – Empires Greek city-states (Athens) developed colonies in the Middle East and Sicily to gain access to grain production Traded not only olive oil and wine, but also manufactured products and silver

44. Romans – soil depletion of North Africa Greek city-states/Roman state supervised the grain trade, promoting public works and storage facilities and carefully regulating the vital supplies Luxury products from shops of urban artists or crafts workers played a major role in the lifestyle of the upper class

45. Leading Athenian merchants – foreigners from Middle East (descendants of Lydians and Phoenicians) Merchants had a somewhat higher status in Rome (right below landed patricians)

46. Slavery Aristotle justifies slavery Athenians used slaves as household servants; workers in their vital mines Sparta used slaves for agricultural work The need for slaves was another key element in military expansion Roman slaves performed household tasks – including the tutoring of upper-class children; worked mines (precious metals/iron) Life expectancy of a slave?

47. Neither Greece nor Rome was especially interested in technological innovations (agriculture or manufacturing) Greeks – shipbuilding and navigation (trading) Romans – good roads for easy movement of troops Mediterranean society lagged behind both India and China in production technology (unfavorable balance of trade)