Internet Technology Routing

1. Internet TechnologyRouting Richard Martin Dept. of Computer Science Rutgers University

2. Forwarding vs Routing • Routing is the decision which path to take • Forwarding is the lookup once the decision has been made • These functions are typically decoupled in real systems

3. Routing Algorithms • A routing algorithm decides which output link an incoming packet should be transmitted on • A routing “table” contains the mappings from the networks and host addresses to output ports on the router • The routing algorithm builds this “table”

4. Forwarding • A forwarding algorithm performs the lookup of address to output port • In connection-oriented service, the forwarding algorithm is performed by switches and only during connection setup • In connectionless service, the forwarding algorithm is performed by routers every time a packet arrives

5. Example Routing Table remus:/ug/u1/rmartin%netstat -rn Routing Table: Destination Gateway Flags Ref Use Interface -------------------- -------------------- ----- ----- ------ -------- 128.6.13.0 128.6.13.3 U 3 4259 hme0 224.0.0.0 128.6.13.3 U 3 0 hme0 default 128.6.13.21 UG 02184931 127.0.0.1 127.0.0.1 UH 0 346400 lo0

6. Routing Algorithms • Two types of routing algorithms: • Non-Adaptive Routing Algorithms • Adaptive Routing Algorithms • Hierarchical Routing is used to make these algorithms scale to large networks

7. Non-Adaptive Routing Algorithms • Non-adaptive routing algorithms do not base their routing decisions on the current state of the network • Examples: • Flooding • Shortest Path Routing

8. Flooding Algorithm • Every incoming packet is sent out on every outgoing line except the one it arrived on • No routing table, no lookup! • Problem: Vast number of duplicated packets

9. Reducing Flooding Algorithm’s Duplicate Packets • Solution 1: Hop counter • Have a hop counter in the packet header • Routers decrement each arriving packet’s hop counter • Routers discard a packet with hop count=0 • Ideally, the hop counter should be initialized to the length of the path from the source to the destination • Hop count defines the “Horizon” of the packet, which is how far a node can “see”.

10. Reducing Flooding Algorithm’s Duplicate Packets (cont’d) • Solution 2: Sequence Numbers • Require the first router hop to put a sequence number in each packet it receives from its hosts • Each router maintains a table listing the sequence numbers it has seen from each first-hop router. The router can then discard packets it has already seen.

11. Flooding Uses • Used in small networks or limited horizon • order 100’s of nodes • Military A pplications • Large number of routers is desirable • If one router is taken out (by a bomb?) flooding will still get packets to their destinations • Distributed Databases • Simultaneous updates of multiple databases can be done with a single packet transmission • Gnutella search is an example, uses horizon

12. Shortest Path Routing • For a pair of communicating hosts, there is a shortest path between them • Shortness may be defined by: • Number of router/switch hops • Geographic distance • Link delay

13. Shortest Path What is the shortest path between A and F? 2 B 3 4 D F 1 A 2 2 1 C E 3 Edge Weight (Distance)

14. Computing the Shortest Path • Dijkstra’s Shortest Path Algorithm: • Step 1: Draw nodes as circles. Fill in a circle to mark it as a “permanent node.” • Step 2: Set the current node equal to the source node • Step 3: For the current node: • Mark the cumulative distance from the current node to each non-permanent adjacent node. Also mark the name of the current node. Erase this marking if the adjacent node already has a shorter cumulative distance marked • Mark the non-permanent node with the shortest listed cumulative distance as permanent and set the current node equal to it. Repeat step 3 until all nodes are marked permanent.

15. Selected edge Candidate edge Not visited Dijskstra’s Shortest Path AlgorithmExample 7 B C 2 3 2 3 2 A E F D 1 2 2 4 4 G H

16. Selected edge Candidate edge Not visited Dijskstra’s Shortest Path AlgorithmExample 7 B C 2 3 2 3 2 A E F D 1 2 2 6 4 G H

17. Selected edge Candidate edge Not visited Dijskstra’s Shortest Path AlgorithmExample 7 B C 2 3 2 3 2 A E F D 1 2 2 6 4 G H

18. Dijskstra’s Shortest Path AlgorithmExample 7 B C 2 3 2 3 2 A E F D 1 2 2 6 4 G H Selected edge Candidate edge Not visited

19. Selected edge Candidate edge Not visited Dijskstra’s Shortest Path AlgorithmExample 7 B C 2 3 2 3 2 A E F D 1 2 2 6 4 G H

20. Dijkstra’s Algorithm

21. Shortest Path Routing (cont’d) • Non-adaptive, if: • geographical distances are used as edge weights • maximum link throughputs are used as edge weights • Number of IMP hops are used as edge weights

22. Adaptive Routing Algorithms • Problems with non-adaptive algorithms • If traffic levels in different parts of the subnet change dramatically and often, non-adaptive routing algorithms are unable to cope with these changes • Lots of computer traffic is bursty, but non-adaptive routing algorithms are usually based on average traffic conditions • Adaptive routing algorithms can deal with these situations

23. Adaptive Routing Algorithms(cont’d) • Three Types: • Centralized Adaptive Routing • Isolated Adaptive Routing • Distributed Adaptive Routing

24. Centralized Adaptive Routing • Routing table adapts to network traffic • A routing control center is somewhere in the network • Periodically, each router forwards link status information to the control center • The center can, with Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm, compute the best routes • Best routes are dispatched to each router

25. Problem with Centralized Algorithms • Vulnerability • If the control center goes down, routing becomes non-adaptive • Scalability • The control center must handle a great deal of routing information, especially for larger networks

26. Isolated Adaptive Routing Algorithms • Routing decisions are made only on the basis of information available locally in each router • Examples: • Hot Potato • Backward Learning

27. Hot Potato Routing • When a packet arrives, the router tries to get rid of it as fast as it can by putting it on the output line that has the shortest queue • Hot potato does not care where the output line leads • Not very effective

28. Backward Learning Routing • Packet headers include destination and source addresses. They also include a hop counter • Network nodes, initially ignorant of network topology, acquire knowledge of the network state as packets are handled

29. Backward Learning • Algorithm: • Routing is originally random • A packet with a hop count of one is from a directly connected node; thus, neighboring nodes are identified with their connecting links • A packet with a hop count of two is from a source two hops away, etc. • As packets arrive, the router compares the hop count for a given source address with the minimum hop count already registered; if the new one is less, it is substituted for the previous one

30. Distributed Routing Algorithms • Each router periodically exchanges routing information (e.g., estimated time delay, queue length, etc.) with its neighbors • Examples: • Distance Vector Routing • Link State Routing

31. Distance Vectors • Each router maintains lists of best-known distances to all other known routers. These lists are called “vectors.” • Each router is assumed to know the exact distance (in delay, hop count, etc.) to other routers directly connected to it. • Periodically, vectors are exchanged between adjacent routers, and each router updates its vectors.

32. Distance Vectors (cont’d)

33. Convergence Speed • Supposed all routers know the current state of the network • Next, a change in link-status happens • How fast the routers learn new state of the network is the “convergence” speed

34. Problem: Count-to-Infinity • With distance vector routing, links coming on line converge quickly but link failures converge slowly • This problem for DV routing algorithms is call “count-to-infinity”

35. Count-to-Infinity A B C D E 1 2 3 4 Initially 3 2 3 4 After 1 exchange 3 4 3 4 After 2 exchanges 5 4 5 4 After 3 exchanges 5 6 5 6 After 4 exchanges 7 6 7 6 After 5 exchanges etc… to infinity

36. Split Horizon • Insight: It’s not useful to claim reachablility for a destination to the neighbor from which the route was learned • Don’t report routes back to node from which the route was learned • E.g. If I hear from X has the shortest route to Y, don’t report to X I have a route to Y

37. Poison Reverse • Not reporting a route means having to wait for a timeout • Report “split-horizon” routes as infinity to break loops on the first routing exchange.

38. Split Horizon with Poisoned Reverse A B C D E inf. 2 3 4 B learns A is dead C reports to B that A’s metric is inf. inf. inf. 2 3 4 inf. inf. 3 4 After 1 exchange inf. inf. inf. 4 After 2 exchanges inf. inf. inf. inf. After 3 exchanges

39. Split Horizon Failure B A If D goes down, A and B will still count to infinity. Split-Horizon infinity messages are sent from A->C and B->C, not A<->B C D

40. Link State Routing • Each router measures the distance (in delay, hop count, etc.) between itself and its adjacent routers • The router builds a packet containing all these distances. The packet also contains a sequence number and an age field. • Each router distributes these packets using flooding • Each router builds map of the entire network, uses a shortest-path algorithm

41. Link State Routing (cont’d) • To control flooding, the sequence numbers are used by routers to discard flood packets they have already seen from a given router • The age field in the packet is an expiration date. It specifies how long the information in the packet is good for. • Once a router receives all the link state packets from the network, it can reconstruct the complete topology and compute a shortest path between itself and any other node using Dijsktra’s algorithm.

42. Hierarchical Routing • All routing algorithms have difficulties as the network becomes large • For large networks, the routing tables grow very quickly, and so does the number of flood packets • How can this be reduced? Hierarchical routing

43. Hierarchical Routing (cont’d) • Segment the network into regions • Routers in a single region know all the details about other routers in that region, but none of the details about routers in other regions • Analogy: Telephone area codes

44. Hierarchical Routing (cont’d)

45. RIP • Route Information Protocol • One of the routing algorithms used by the Internet • Based on distance vector routing • Did not scale well • suffered the count-to-infinity problem • weak security • RIP is phased out for large backbones • but still widely used for smaller networks

46. OSPF • Open Shortest Path First • Routing algorithm now used in the Internet • OSPF uses the Link State Routing algorithm with modifications to support: • Multiple distance metrics (geographical distance, delay, throughput) • Support for real-time traffic • Hierarchical routing • Security

47. OSPF (cont’d) • OSPF divides the network into several hierarchies: • Autonomous Systems (AS’s) • groups of subnets • Areas • Groups of routers within an AS • Backbone Areas • Groups of routers that connect other areas together

48. OSPF (cont’d) Autonomous System Backbone Area Area Area Autonomous System Area Backbone Area Area Area

49. OSPF (cont’d) • Routers are distinguished by the functions they perform • Internal routers • Only route packets within one area • Area border routers • Connect to areas together • Backbone routers • Reside only in the backbone area • AS boundary routers • Routers that connect to a router outside the AS

50. OSPF: Modified Link State Routing • Recall: • In link state routing, routers flood their routing information to all other routers in the network • In OSPF, routers only send their information to “adjacent routers”, not to all routers. • Adjacent does NOT mean nearest-neighbor in OSPF • One router in each area is marked as the “designated router” • Designated routers are considered adjacent to all other routers in the area • OSPF combines link state routing with centralized adaptive routing