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Introduction Part Three Anti-Positivistic Theory

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Introduction Part Three Anti-Positivistic Theory

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    1. Introduction – Part Three Anti-Positivistic Theory EA&S 501 Spring, 2002 Chapter 8

    2. Unifying Model for Anti-positivistic theories

    4. Getzels’ & Guba’s Nomothetic & Idiographic Dimensions Chapter 5

    5. Decision Making, Learning, and Loose Coupling Chapter 8 EA&S 501 Spring, 2002

    6. What is Leadership?

    7. Key Principles To Learn From This Chapter The loose relationship between cause and outcome The irrational nature of decision making, and learning theory Anti-positivists theory does not invalidate leadership They call for a new understanding of the role of leadership

    8. Loose Coupling Different parts of an organization are loosely related to one another Different divisions of the organization are loosely coupled Activities in a math department are loosely coupled with activities in an English department Loose coupling can infer that there is a lot of “play” in a system. Like a mushy steering wheel The leader has little effect on the organizations performance

    9. Carl Veick’s Seven Pros and Cons of Loosely Coupled Systems Allows parts of an organization to evolve independently of one another Change occurs more readily when the organization develops small Independent division/departments are not forced to coordinate Change can be implemented one department at a time Old, non-productive practices hang around.

    10. Carl Veick’s Pros and Cons of Loosely Coupled Systems Small, loosely coupled units are more sensitive to environmental demands Subject to small energy draining fads Allows local adaptation to local environmental conditions May hinder the diffusion of local changes that could benefit the entire system

    11. Carl Veick’s Pros and Cons of Loosely Coupled Systems Isolated units can experiment with novel structures or activities without affecting the entire system Looseness may inhibit the diffusion of experiments that are productive Loose coupling allows organizations to isolate problems Troubled units may receive little help from the rest of the organization.

    12. Carl Veick’s Pros and Cons of Loosely Coupled Systems 6. Loosely coupled units are self-sufficient, thus allowing more flexible response to uncertain environments. They might be on their own in hostile situations It could be cheaper to run a loosely coupled system than to provide the expensive coordinating structures needed for a tight system; The trade-off is loss of control.

    13. Coupling and Stability The greater the level of system connectedness, the more uncertain and unstable the environment for given organizations Tightly coupled organizations are easy prey for difficulties. Problems can sweep through the organization like wildfire; thus, the tightly coupled organizations are considered unstable.

    14. 14 Characteristics of Groups Membership: groups can be open, where almost anyone can join, or closed, where membership is restricted Interaction: group can be loosely coupled, where the activity of each member is relatively independent of the other members, or tightly coupled, such as a project team where the work of each member is tied closely with the work of the other members Hierarchy: group can be just one part of a “chain of command”; ex. conference planning committees

    15. 15 Types of Groups Authority groups: involve formal authority (and often hierarchy), such as boss and subordinates; membership closed; coupling tight Intradepartmental groups: can have members all doing essentially the same work, often under the same boss; membership closed; interaction can range from tight to loose coupling; hierarchy Project teams: generally have members who work full-time to accomplish a goal within a specific schedule; membership closed; coupling tight; hierarchy

    16. Interdepartmental work groups: pass work from department to department (purchasing, receiving, accounts payable) in a chain, forming a super group; membership closed; coupling tight; no hierarchy Committees and task forces: formed to deal with a subject area or issue, then disband; does not require full-time work by the members; membership not too closed; interaction not as tightly coupled “Communities of practice”: group of people who work or play together for so long that they have developed an identifiable way of doing things; ex. volunteer organization Types of Groups (cont.)

    17. 17 Business relationship groups: relationships with customers, groups of customers, suppliers, and so on; membership open; interaction loosely coupled; no hierarchy Peer groups: meet to exchange ideas and opinions; activities of each member are largely independent of the activities of the other members; membership can range; interaction loosely coupled; no hierarchy Types of Groups (cont.)

    18. 18 Networks: groups of people who socialize, exchange information, and expand the number of their personal acquaintances Electronic groups: include chat rooms, multi-user domains, user groups, and virtual worlds, all forms of groups that have formed on the Internet to socialize, find information, entertain themselves, gain comfort, or just experiment with the new online world; membership wide open; no hierarchy; loosely coupled Types of Groups

    19. Tight and Loose Coupling Coupling is illusionary Tacit and explicit Social mystery Source of anxiety

    20. Alliances and Learning Can sometimes learn more quickly from another than trying to learn on own Alliances constitute a form of “loose-coupling” and thus promotion of variation-selection-retention learning preserve the relative autonomy of two groups engaging in their own local search; each learns from the local search of the other unique combination of information in both groups will yield insights that neither firm would gain on its own

    21. Leadership and Change Coupling has a strong affect on change Loosely/moderately coupled organizations simply absorb the change agents efforts. Administrators/change agents can improve the chances of change by tightening the coupling. Reduce internal/external variability

    22. Change and Dissemination The movement of innovation and change through a system. Education, historically is very slow to disseminate change through the organization (about 20 years) The optimal structure for disseminating innovation and change is probably the moderately coupled system. (sufficiently tight and sufficiently loose)

    23. How might an administrator tighten coupling patterns to enable change? What unintended consequences could result? Sometimes organizations return to their original structure after a period of time. Why? How does this shed light on leadership and change from the loose coupling perspective?

    24. Increase the scope of rules and regulations controlling organizational segments. Reduce the number of units to allow greater centralization of authority. Exercise greater control over the workflow of the organization. Increase interdependency among segments (compete for resources).

    25. Assuming moderate coupling is the answer to facilitating the spread of innovation and change, What sort of things could a state superintendent and state board of education do to make their state system more amenable to the spread of creative ideas?

    26. Increasing interaction and interdependence Regional offices Enabled communication Enhance E-mail opportunities Inter-district opportunities

    27. Decision Making Cause is loosely related to outcome Human behavior and decisions are often irrational. Good thing that cause and outcome are loosely related or the irrationality of humans would really mess things up.

    28. Three Phases of Decision Making (Herbert Simon – 1957) Intelligence Phase A period of data collecting Design Phase The drafting of possible decisions Choice Phase The period when the course of action is selected

    29. Analysis of Simons’ Model (Mintzberg, Raisin-ghani, and Theoret) People gather data when problems are mild – not when they are severe. Decision making more trial & error than systematic Intuition or political compromise have a greater impact on decision making than rationality

    30. RATIONAL ACTOR: Maximize organization’s benefits BUREAUCRATIC: Follow standard operating procedures (SOP) POLITICAL: Key groups compete and bargain “GARBAGE CAN”: Organizations not rational; solutions accidental ORGANIZATIONAL MODELS OF DECISION MAKING

    31. Individuals and institutions sometimes need ways of doing things for which there are no good reasons. Not always, not even usually, but occasionally people need to act before they think. The so-called garbage can model describes this tendency. MODELS OF DECISION MAKING

    32. Decisions In A Garbage Can Michael Cohen, James March, and Johan Olsen Organizations can be viewed for some purposes as collections of choices looking for problems, issues and feelings looking for decisions in which they might be aired, solutions looking for issues to which there might be answers, and decision makers looking for work.

    34. Matching the Right Decision Strategy with the Appropriate Circumstance Strategy Optimizing Satisficing Muddling through Adaptive satisficing Appropriate Circumstance Narrow, simple problems with complete information and certain outcomes Complex problems with partial information, uncertainty, but with definable satisfactory outcomes and adequate time to deliberate Incomplete information, complex problems, outcomes uncertain, no guiding policy, and general organizational chaos Incomplete information, complex problems, outcomes uncertain, but a guiding policy and mission

    35. Garbage Can Features Organizational objectives emerge spontaneously; they are not set beforehand. Means and ends exist independently chance or happenstance connects them. A good decision occurs when a problem matches a solution. The decision relies more on chance than rationality. Administrators scan existing solutions, problems, participants, and opportunities looking for matches.

    36. Garbage Can Model - a theory that contends that decisions in organizations are random and unsystematic

    37. The basic feature of the garbage can model is that the decision process does not begin with a problem and end with a solution; rather, decisions are a product of independent streams of events in the organization.

    38. Solutions Before Problems A neat instructional procedure and you fabricated a situation in which to apply it? A social theory and then found all sorts of events that can be explained by it? Give a boy a hammer and he will find all sorts of things that need hammering. My first computer

    39. Choice Theorists’ Proposal People make somewhat ‘Biblical’ assumptions about domination of our environments The lion doesn’t dominate the jungle, he learns to live in it and get from it what he needs. If leaders want to survive in their ‘jungles’, they must learn to survive and get what they need – this is called Learning theory.

    40. Learning Theory Learning theory exists on two levels: Learning by individuals, and Learning by organizations Humans learn by: Studying Experience Adaptation Interacting

    41. Learning Theory Organizational learning is on a higher level of generality than individuals: Learning remains long after the humans have left Becomes part of the organizations collective memory Organizations may possess knowledge that transcends individual understanding

    42. Knowledge Acquisition Huber’s Four Dynamics: Acquisition of knowledge Distribution of information Interpretation of information Organization memory

    43. Organizational Learning

    44. Ways Organizations Acquire Knowledge

    45. Communication, or Information Distribution A different focus: Do organizations effectively access information, innovative or otherwise, they already possess? Knowledge resides in both the people and the organization Individuals learn about their work How does the organization access this information? Employees leave and new employees are hired Knowledge learned often is not shared

    46. Encouraging Communication How could an administrator manipulate the schedules, atmosphere, and organization of a school in way that encourages communication? Building layout, aesthetics, proximity, and availability. Scheduled group meetings with an agenda

    47. Information Interpretation Environmental mapping – sensing environmental stimuli Different segments of the organization must be linked to share learning Different divisions within a coupled system will interpret stimuli differently Dramatic information more likely to be interpreted uniformly Sometimes we must unlearn old ways

    48. Question Does more learning occur when a message is uniformly understood from the beginning or when different divisions understand the message differently?

    49. Sources of Solutions Conferences, School Visitations University course work Interaction among peers Professional magazines and journals Workshops

    50. New Blood Do people change organizations or do organizations change people? Let me show you how we do that around here. Informal groups – alliances New teacher enthusiasm – leadership opportunities Leader plan for inclusion of new blood.

    51. Organizational Memory When experienced people leave an organization – information is lost Experience and the ‘shortcuts’ learned by experienced employees leaves when they leave. One way to retain this experience is to convert it to rules and regulations As bureaucracy increases, however, the number of new situations from which an organization can learn should decrease.

    52. Problem-solving Versus Problem-Finding School administrators are both problem-solvers and problem-finders New administrators spend a lot of time rushing from one crisis to another crisis – they are problem solvers. (reactive) Experienced administrators learn to neutralize problems (quadrant II) and prevent many of them from ever happening. (proactive) Problem Finders

    53. Diary Chapter 8

    54. Question 1: Given what you have learned in this chapter: What are some important functions of leadership? In what way does your answer change from previous answers to this question?

    55. ISLLC - Question 1 [S1.D.6] Willingness to continuously examine one’s own assumptions, beliefs, and practices [S2.D.4] Life long learning for self and others [S2.P.7] Life long learning is encouraged and modeled [S5.K.1] The purpose of education and the role of leadership in modern society

    56. Loose coupling between action and reaction can be positive Managers/leaders have significant latitude over how they structure their organizations Organizations pursue multiple goals Leadership as presented in this chapter is problem finding (proactive – Quadrant II) Leaders do not control their organizations or their futures – they learn how to help the organization survive and thrive.

    57. Question 2: Based on what you now know about the nature of organizations: How would you go about implementing change in an organization in which you were leader?

    58. ISLLC – Question 2 [S1.K.5] Effective Communication [S2.K.9] The change process for systems, organizations, and individuals [S2.P.16] A variety of sources of information is used to make decisions [S3.K.1] Theories and models of organizations and the principles of organizational development

    59. ISLLC – Question 2 [S3.K.2] Operational procedures at the school and district level [S3.K.4] Human resources management and development

    60. Leaders are not in control in the traditional sense of the word Change is not something they do but something they enable or encourage Forced change will not last – subordinates will seek ways to get around or neutralize the change Computers set in closets Block schedule does not teach for 90 min. Leaders enable change by building moderately coupled networks of interdependency

    61. Question 3: Identify things that make some people poor decision makers and make others good decision makers: Illustrate your answers from your experiences (without names). What does your reflection suggest regarding improving your own decision-making capabilities?

    62. ISLLC – Question 3 [S1.K.4] Information sources, data collection, and data analysis strategies [S2.P.16] A variety of sources of information is used to make decisions [S3.K.1] Theories and models of organizations and the principles of organizational development [S3.D.1] making management decisions to enhance learning and teaching

    63. Effective decision-makers have a rich supply of solutions They are thoughtful in relating solutions to problems and participants They sort through their supply of solutions before settling on one They are good at finding real problems to which their solutions can be applied They are spontaneous when it comes to identifying problems, solutions, and participants, but not irrationally so.

    64. Question 4: Learning theorists argue that organizational knowledge is innate, “the way we do things around here.” How can a leader influence this innate learning?

    65. ISLLC – Question 4 [S1.D.3] Continuous school improvement [S1.P.2] The vision and mission are communicated through the use of symbols, ceremonies, stories, and similar activities [S1.P.3] The core beliefs of the school vision are modeled for all stakeholders [S1.P.4] The vision is developed with and among stakeholders

    66. ISLLC – Question 4 [S1.P.12] Barriers to achieving the vision are identified, clarified, and addressed [S1.P.15] The vision, mission, and implementation plans are regularly monitored, evaluated, and revised [S2.K.9] The change process for systems, organizations, and individuals

    67. ISLLC – Question 4 [S2.K.11] School Cultures [S2.P.15] The school culture and climate are assessed on a regular basis [S3.K.4] Human resources management and development [S3.P.8] potential problems and opportunities are identified [S3.P.15] Effective problem-framing and problem-solving skills are used

    68. ISLLC – Question 4 [S3.P.18] Effective communication skills are used

    69. The question is how can organizational knowledge be modified or unlearned? The traits needing modification are difficult to get to because they are deeply ingrained into the organizational psyche. These traits, beliefs, etc. have become a part of the culture. New cultures can be built through such things as administrative expectations and behaviors, myths, and rituals.

    70. ISLLC Standard 3 A school administrator is an educational leader who promotes the success of all students by ensuring management of the organization, operations, and resources for a safe, efficient, and effective learning environment

    71. ISLLC Standard 3 Knowledge The administrator has knowledge and understanding of theories and models of organizations and the principles of organizational development

    72. ISLLC Standard 3 Dispositions The administrator believes in, values, and is committed to making management decisions to enhance learning and teaching

    73. Sandy Billings had first met Ms. Wilson before either of the Brewster boys was enrolled in school. Josh, the older boy, has been attending school in a neighboring district, although the school where Billings was principal was actually the school of his residence, and no formal application had ever been made for his transfer to the neighboring district. The circumstances around their return were somewhat clouded, but Billings had heard that the former district had actually instigated the process of the return.

    74. Josh, the older boy, was very bright and had been reported as being a joy in the classroom. The younger boy, James, was his exact opposite. The teachers felt strongly that he was probably much less bright and possibly suffered from Attention Deficit, Hyperactivity Disorder. He had not been identified with any specific learning challenges to date. Mrs. Wilson had been very vocal when school started about volunteering with the art program, and Billings had extended many invitations to come help, as had the individual teachers. So far, there had been much talk about Mrs. Wilson’s abilities, how she could really improve the program, but no action.

    75. Both parents worked in their own businesses. She ran a very successful antique and art gallery business and he was owner and CEO of an international computer consulting company. They were very involved with the elite of the community and were close friends with two or three of the present school board members. There had been suggestions that one of them would certainly make a good board member in the near future.

    76. Sandy Billings’ brain moved rapidly through all this information as she listened to Dr. Rose, her superintendent, relate a “most unusual” meeting he had just completed with Mrs. Wilson. “I have checked our files, and I can’t find any children by that name,” he said. “I have just had a conversation with a woman by that name who says she has children in your school. I think she was here about four hours.

    77. “Four hours!” exclaimed Sandy. What on earth did she discuss that took four hours?” “Oh, it was something about wearing socks to school.” “The nurse and I sent one home last year after the incident with the health problem we were having with children’s feet. I sent on to you. I think.”

    78. “Oh, I remember,” Dr. Rose responded. “Wasn’t that about when we had to fumigate your office and the health room after the child had all those foot blister treated? But that was last year wasn’t it?” “Yes,” she responded. “the PTA had a garage sale just before school started, and sent out a flyer that they had lots of children’s socks of all sizes and parents could get all they needed. Incidentally, we have not had a single blister so far all fall.”

    79. “Well. I guess the result of the conversation with Mrs. Wilson or Brewster is that she wants you to run a “kinder, gentler” school. So, I want you to run a “kinder, gentler” school from now on. Just don’t ask me what that means.” Dr. Rose was laughing now, and Sandy knew that he had no more idea what that meant than she did.

    80. Assignment: This activity is an opportunity to summarize your study of administrative theories and apply the concepts of the various theories to an administrative experience. Describe the actions you would take relative to the incident. Remember, there is no absolute, correct, one single way to handle this situation. It is your best judgment. You are to act as you believe you would as the actual principal in this situation.

    81. Assignment: After you have determined and written your “solution” to the situation, your task is to identify at least one administrative theorist whom you believe would agree and support your decision. Describe the theory and analyze the concepts of the theory identifying how and why they support your action.

    82. Assignment: Finally, identify at least one theorist who would disagree with your decision. Describe the theory and analyze the concepts of the theory, identifying how and why they do not support your action.

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