Curriculum and Program Development

1. Curriculum and Program Development The Theory

2. THE FIVE MOST SIGNIGICANT CURRICULUM EVENTS IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Ralph W. Tyler • Edward Thorndike’s refutation of the two long held beliefs • John Dewey’s Monograph on Interest and Effort • The 26th Yearbook of NSSE • The Society for Curriculum Study (NEA) • The Eight-Year Study

3. Thorndike’s refutation • The study of geometry or algebra does not necessarily increase students’ logical ability. • The study of languages such as Latin does not necessarily develop students’ verbal skills. • Consequently, these subjects should not be considered core curriculum. • Curriculum should be designed to help students become successful in life.

4. Dewey’s Monograph • Students will put more effort in learning something that they find interesting. • Before his monograph it was thought that studies should be distasteful and not interesting in order for the subjects to be a challenge.

5. The 26th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education • In 1927 the NSSE published 2 volumes on curriculum. They concluded that curriculum development processes in American schools was unsatisfactory. • This was the stimulus for the beginning of the curriculum as a field of study that would produce curriculum specialists.

6. The Society for Curriculum Study • In 1930 at an annual NEA meeting a group of 20 educators met informally and started the Society of Curriculum Study. Ralph Tyler was one of the 20. • Later from this beginning, the ASCD was formed.

7. The Curriculum Experiments of the 1930s This was a time of a great depression. Jobs were scarce. The Progressive Education Association developed the 8 yr. study to challenge 30 schools to demonstrate a curriculum that met the needs of the students.

8. Significant Outcomes of the 1930 Experiments • Showed that schools were capable of designing programs that would be of interest and support the needs of the students. • SAT (entrance exams) were developed as a way of meeting college requirements. • Faculty Inservice workshops were started.

9. More advantages from the 1930 Experiments • Multiple testing methods were being introduced such as questionnaires, observations, and projects, and products. (Tyler, 1987). • It was recognized that rote memory and drill activities were not especially effective learning strategies. Metacognitive learning strategies were better.

10. Other significant events • Brain research into how we learn. • Standardized testing • Legislation like NCLB • Etc.

11. The Power of Mindful LearningLanger, E.J. (1997) • Mindful learning creates new categories; is open to new viewpoints; is aware of more that one perspective • Mindful learning practices sideways learning with looks for patterns, is flexible and looks for the best choice.

12. Mindful Learning and Myths Basics must be over learned through drill. Need to pay attention to learn. Gratification must be delayed. Rote memory is the way to learn. There is a right or wrong answer.

13. An Information Processing System

14. TWO THINKING STYLES – A COMPARISON CHART by Dann Walker

15. A Creative mind is… Playfool: Playing with Ideas like a Child with Blocks (Childlike Not Childish) SpontaneousEnthusiastic, expressive, aware of the present. Able to enjoy not just the final product, but the process! Curious Interested, intrigued by things, an explorer of ideas: Inclined to Wonder--Wanting to know how thing work. Inclined to Wonder -- Attracted to a variety of things . RomuH gnisneS Whimsical, fun-loving, able to laugh, finding humor in things. Arranging Building, generating order, creating new relationships among things. Maginative Able to pretend, to “make believe”, to enjoy fantasy and enchantment. Progressive: Producing a Prodigious Portion of “Preposterous” Ideas Fluent - Flowing ideas freely, producing plenty of possibilities. Aware of alternatives and able to generate a large quantity of options. Flexible – Open-minded, adaptive, ambiguity-tolerant, and risk-taking. First learning how to follow the rules, then learning when to break them. Proactive:Projecting and Persistently Pursuing Goals Planning – Setting goals, sowing the seeds, organizing the effort. Preserving – Keeping track of plans and results, documenting ideas. Persevering – Believing in one’s self and ideas, tenaciously pursuing the dream. Periodically Passive: Purposely Practicing Peaceful Pausing and Patient Postponing Intuitive– Drawing on experience, supplementing rational thinking by trusting one’s inner feeling. Incubating– Waiting for the flash of illumination, putting it on the back burner, mulling it over, sleeping on it, etc. Serendipity: Those wonderful surprises out of the blue almost always follow a great deal of hard work. Inscrutably Inspired (At least in certain cases) – The intangible spark of genius is difficult to analyze.

16. The Cycle of Learning

17. The adult learner • The adult learner is self-directing. • The adult learner enters the educational environment with more life experience and a greater variety of life experience. • The adult learner is ready to learn when there is a need to know something in order to perform more effectively in some aspect of life. • The adult learner enters an educational activity with a life-centered, task-centered, or problem-centered orientation. • The adult learner is primarily internally motivated.

18. Conditions for adult learning and principles of teaching Conditions of Adult Learning Principles of Teaching • Learners feel a need to learn • The learning environment is physically & interpersonally comfortable • The goals of the learning experience are compatible with the learners’ goals • Learners participate actively in the learning process • The learners’ past experience is utilized • Learners have a sense of progress towards their goals The teacher: • Helps students recognize need to learn • Helps students set personal learning goals • Ensures physical comfort • Accepts & respects students • Builds mutual trust & helpfulness among students • Acts as a co-learner • Involves students in goal formulation • Involves students in joint decisions regarding designing & operating the learning experience • Involves students in the inquiry process • Helps students utilize their past experience • Relates learning activities & content to the students’ past experience • Helps students measure progress (including self-evaluation)

19. Definitions of learning style Learning styles are characteristic ways of responding in learning situations (Gordon) Learning styles are cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment. (Keefe) Learning styles are characteristic ways of processing information and behaving in learning situations (Hiemstra and Sisco) Learning styles are the differences among people in the attitudes, values and approaches they bring to learning. (Erickson and Strommer)

20. Definitions of learning style Learning styles are predispositions to adopt particular learning strategies. (Schmeck) Learning styles are stable ways of approaching tasks that are characteristic of individuals. (Briggs) Learning style is the most inclusive term – It includes cognitive style which is the common model of thinking and information processing that people use. Cognitive style is concerned with how a person encodes and decodes information. Learning style is also concerned with thinking style which is the mode of functioning that governs an individual’s perception and intellectual activities. (Messick)

21. Concrete Experience KOLB’S LEARNING Cycle Observation and Reflection Active Experimentation Conceptualization and Generalization

22. 3 MAJOR THEORIES OF LEARNING 1. BEHAVIORISM (CONNECTIONISM- Thorndike, classical conditioning – Pavlov – Watson, operant conditioning – Skinner, and modeling) 2. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (developmental stages – Piaget, levels of thinking, multiple intelligence – Gardner, creativity, critical thinking, reflective thinking – Dewey, intuitive thinking, and discovery learning – Bruner – Phenix) 3. HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY (PHENOMENOLOGY) (Gestalt, human needs – Maslow, freedom to learn – Roger, value clarification – Rath , cooperative learning – Johnson – Slavin, and motivation)

23. BEHAVIORISM is: • based on observable changes in behavior. It focuses on a new behavior pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic. • It uses rewards and punishments in determining future behaviors. • Behaviors that produce positive results are likely to be repeated.

24. COGNITIVE THEORY • is based on the thought process behind the behavior. Changes in behavior are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learner’s mind. • Cognitive theorists believe that learning involves associations established through contiguity and repetition and interaction between heredity and environment. Wurth, J. (2009). Nova Southeastern University. Ft. Lauderdale, FL.

25. COGNITIVE THEORY (CONT.) Cognitive Theorists are also aware of the value of reinforcement, although they use it as providing feedback instead of as a motivator. (Good and Brophy, 1990).

26. HUMANIST THEORY • Is based on the belief that learning is viewed as a personal act to fulfill one’s potential. • Self-concept and self-esteem are essential for learning. • There is a natural desire to learn. • Learning occurs in a positive environment.

27. Some other important theories: • CONSTRUCTIVISM THEORY is based on the idea that learners construct their own meaning through individual experiences and schema. Schema is our internal knowledge structure. All new information is compared, combined, extended or altered to our present schema according to constructivists.

28. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY was originated by David A. Kolb. It is a four-stage cyclical theory of learning that combines experience, perception, cognition, and behavior. • This theory focuses on the idea that everyone has a natural desire to learn and that learners need to be empowered and have control over the learning process. The teacher becomes a facilitator. This theory could be seen as a foundation for the Learner-Centered Theory of learning.

29. Learning – Styles of Group Concrete Experience ACCOMMODATOR Strengths: Getting things done Leadership Risk-taking Active DIVERGER Strengths: Imaginative ability Understanding people Recognizing problems Brainstorming Reflective Experimentation CONVERGER Strengths: • Problem-solving • Decision-making • Deductive reasoning • Defining problems Assimilator Assimilator Strengths: • Planning • Creating models • Defining problems • Developing theories Abstract Conceptualization

30. Learning Style • Ways of responding in learning situations • Physiological traits • Ways of processing information • Differences in attitudes, values, approaches

31. Learning Styles Inventories • Personality • Embedded Figures • Myers-Briggs • Familiar Figures • Witkin • Information Processing • Kolb • Gregorc • Multi-Intelligence • Social Interaction • Grasha-Reichmann

32. Learning Styles Inventories • Environmental and Instructional • PEPS • Dunn, Dunn • Price • Canfield • Hill • Multi-Intelligence

33. A FRAMEWORK OF LEARNING STYLE MODELS

34. Curriculum and Program Development Curriculum Development

35. Instructional Design is a process of systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction.

36. Instructional Design is a process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs.

37. Instructional Design Models • Tyler Model • Taba Model • Gagné Model • Kemp Model • Backward Design Model • ADDIE Model

38. TYLERIAN MODEL OF CURRICULUM DESIGN NEED State the need for proposed design. OBJECTIVES State objective: Indicate what is to be done and how objective will be accomplished ORGANIZATION OF CONTENT State subject matter content and explain how it will be organized. LEARNING EXPERIENCES Provide examples of learning experiences to be included in the design. EVALUATION State what will be evaluated and how evaluation will be conducted. DISSEMINATION Show how design will be communicated to others.

39. Support Services Elements of the Instructional Design Process – Morrison, Ross, and Kemp; 4th Edition Planning Revision INSTRUCTIONALPROBLEMS LEARNERCHARACTERISTICS Support Services INSTRUCTIONALRESOURCES TASKANALYSIS Summative Evaluation INSTRUCTIONALOBJECTIVE EVALUATIONINSTRUMENTS CONTENTSEQUENCING INSTRUCTIONALDELIVERY INSTRUCTIONALSTRATEGIES Formative Evaluation Project Management

40. EDUCATIONAL CHARTING Before beginning a new educational program or class when revising an existing one, it is helpful to chart your direction. This charting process can help you be more organized and effective in your presentations. It allows standardization of programs so that others can provide your classes with the same degree of quality. In order to chart your program, you should answer the following questions. Remember to provide enough detail so that a reader can have a clear picture of your program and how to conduct it. • Why is this program needed? • What do I hope the learner can do (objective) as a result of this session? NOTE: Your answer should apply to learner actions and not to what you must so as an instructor. • What specific content must be provided in this session? NOTE: This question does not mean that you must write the content out verbatim. An outline of key concepts is critical here. • What activities will I use to assist the learner in the actions cited in question 2? NOTE: You should give a detailed outline of just how you intend to facilitate the leaning. A person reading your answer should be able to duplicate your efforts. • What supplies, materials, resources, consultants, etc., will I need? • How much time will this session take? You may specify by learning activity. • How will I know that the learner can do the actions(evaluation methods) which have been selected for this session? NOTE: This is an often neglected, but critical step. Be sure to assess both the content and the process involved in providing the content. ALL EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS SHOULD INCLUDE THIS STEP FOR BOTH DOCUMENTATION AND QUALITY ASSURANCE REASONS. • What are my projected costs for the total program? What is my actual cost for the program? • What is my projected number of learners? What is my actual number of learners? • How will you evaluate the effectiveness? What was the cost per student?

41. SIX MAJOR PHASES OF A CURRICULUM MODEL Analysis • Needs Analysis • Task Analysis • Learner Analysis Objectives Evaluation Instruction Implementation Revision

42. Schools of PHILOSPHICAL THOUGHT PERENNIALISTS: Believe in liberal arts & sciences; favors cultivation of reason IDEALISTS: External perception exists as ideas REALISTS: Believe that theory & principles are basis for learning PRAGMATISTS: Emphasize thinking skills; relevance of curriculum is essential to learning EXISTENTIALISTS: Emphasize freedom of decision-making; foster self - development

43. PURPOSES AND ADVANTAGES OF BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES The definition of objectives in term of observable learner behavior -- the learner does what, given what, how well -- has the following purposes and advantages. 1. It helps the instructor and/or curriculum designer to make explicit his/her own educational aims. 2. It communicates the intent of instruction to others. It provides a starting point for a behavioral analysis and construction of a hierarchy of knowledge. It furnishes a goal against which the success of instruction can be measured. Source: Gow, D.T. Design and Development of Curricular Materials, Volume I. University of Pittsburgh.

44. PURPOSES AND ADVANTAGES OF BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES The definition of objectives in terms of observable learner behavior -- the learner does what, given what, how well -- has the following purposes and advantages: 5. It provides a specific focus for involving others concerned with education in the discussion of educational goals. 6. It informs students of the purposes of their instruction so that they may know what they are expected to do. 7. It facilitates the individualization of instruction. 8. It makes possible the continuous reevaluation and reorganization of instructional objectives as needs changes. Source: Gow, D.T. Design and Development of Curricular Materials, Volume I. University of Pittsburgh.

45. Gagné Model SYSTEM LEVEL Needs Delivery Resources Structure Objectives LESSON LEVEL Needs Media Resources Assessment SYSTEM LEVEL Teacher Preparation Formative Evaluation Revision; Field Testing Summative Evaluation Diffusion

46. Model for Curriculum Development Saylor, Alexander and Lewis Formulate Goals and Objectives Create Curriculum Design Specifications Develop Implementation (Instruction) Plans Select Evaluation Procedures (Students and Plan) Society Learners Knowledge EXTERNAL FORCES: Community, Legal, Research, Professional Knowledge Source: Adapted from J. Galen Saylor, William J. Alexander and Arthur J. Lewis. Curriculum Planning for Better Teaching and Learning (New York Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1981)

47. TEACHING – LEARNING EVALUATION MODEL Define and Develop Instructional Objectives Develop Instruments to Measure Objectives Employ the Instruments to Obtain Student Evaluation of the Instructor and Instruction Employ the Instruments to Measure Student Achievement Provide Feedback to the Instructor and to the Students Provide Feedback to the Instructor and to the Students Determine if the Instructional Objectives have been Accomplished Summarize Data During and at the End of the Term for Final Grade Determination Student Learning Assessment Process Source: Adapted from J. Galen Saylor, William J. Alexander and Arthur J. Lewis Curriculum Planning for Better Teaching and Learning (New York; Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1981) Faculty Evaluation Process Course Evaluation Process

48. BRIGGS MODEL of Instructional Design 1. STATE OBJECTIVES & PERFORMANCE STANDARDS 2. PREPARE TESTS OVER THE OBJECTIVES 3. ANALYZE OBJECTIVES FOR STRUCTURE & SEQUENCE 4. IDENTIFY ASSUMED ENTERING COMPETENCIES 5. PREPARE PRETESTS, REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION, SCREENING, etc.

49. BRIGGS MODEL of Instructional Design 6. SELECT MEDIA & WRITE PRESCRIPTIONS 7. DEVELOP FIRST DRAFT MATERIAL 8. SMALL GROUP TRYOUTS & REVISIONS 9. CLASSROOM TRYOUTS & REVISIONS 10. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

50. Process for Educational Program Development PHASE I PROJECT SELECTION AND DESIGN • BASIC PLANNING INPUTS • (Project-Specific) • Domain of knowledge Student knowledge, attitudes, and priorities • Societal needs • Research • Educational priorities • PROJECT-SPECIFIC FACTORS • Research • Goals • Time • Resources • - Human • - Materials • - Facilities • - Fiscal • Students • - Number • - Location PROJECT GENERATION AND SELECTION THE “IDEAL” SELECTION OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE Instructional Design Model by Robert Diamond