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Thinking Critically With Psychological Science Chapter 1. INSTRUCTOR. Melanie Mack Zabel, MS, CL Office: LDC 215, Desk A Email: mzabel@whatcom.ctc.edu Phone: 383-3809. Scholarly/Peer-Reviewed Research. How do I know I have found a scholarly paper? Abstract Author Affiliation
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INSTRUCTOR Melanie Mack Zabel, MS, CL Office: LDC 215, Desk A Email: mzabel@whatcom.ctc.edu Phone: 383-3809
Scholarly/Peer-Reviewed Research • How do I know I have found a scholarly paper? • Abstract • Author Affiliation • Specialized Terminology • Graphs/Statistical Data • References
PSYCHOLOGY TODAY The scientific study of • Behavior (what we do) • Mental processes (inner thoughts & feelings) • Perception, thinking, memory, & language Learner.org - Psychology: Past, Present, & Promise
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION • Largest organization of psychology with 160,000 members world-wide • Followed by the British Psychological Society with 34,000 members. http://www.apa.org/index.aspx
BASIC VS. APPLIED RESEARCH • Basic Research: Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base • Applied Research: Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY VS. PSYCHIATRY • Clinical psychologist (Ph.D.): studies, assesses, and treats people who have psychological disorders • Psychiatrists (M.D.): medical professionals who sometimes provide medical treatment (such as drugs) as well as psychological therapy to individuals with psychological disorders
Why Study Psychology? Uninformed opinions are made into examined conclusions • Leads to our understanding of how people feel, think, and actas they do
Intuition & Common Sense Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature Intuition and common sense may aid queries, but they are not free of error
Limits of Intuition We overestimate our ability to • Detect lies • Provide eyewitness accounts • Assess interviewees • Predict risks Taxi/ Getty Images
Two Common Errors • Hindsight Bias • “Knew it all along” phenomenon • Overconfidence • Tendency to think we know more than we do
Hindsight Bias Implications • Jurors unable to ignore information when instructed by a judge • Second-guess decision makers after we know the outcome • We forget the previous state of our or others’ knowledge
Overconfidence • There is no reason for anyone to have a computer in their home.Ken Olson, President of Digital Equipment Company, 1977 • Man will never reach the moon, regardless of all future scientific advances. Lee DeForest, inventor of the vacuum tube, 1957 • Heavier-than-air flying machines are impossible.Lord Kelvin, British mathematician, physicist, and President of the British Royal Society, 1895
Overconfidence Sometimes we think we know more than we actually know. Anagram WREAT WATER ETYRN ENTRY How long do you think it would take to unscramble these anagrams? GRABE BARGE
Overconfidence • Stems partly from confirmation bias • Tendency to search for information that confirms our preconceptions
The Scientific Attitude • Curiosity • Passion for exploration • Skepticism • Doubting and questioning • Humility • Ability to accept responsibility when wrong
Critical Thinking • Does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly • Examines assumptions • Discerns hidden values • Evaluates evidence • Assesses conclusions Courtesy of the James Randi Education Foundation The Amazing Randi
How Do Psychologists Ask & Answer Questions? Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations.
Theory An explanation that • Integrates principles • Organizes observations & self-reports • Allows prediction of behavior or events under a set of circumstances Low self-esteem contributes to depression.
Hypothesis A testable prediction • Often prompted by a theory • Enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.
Research Observations Research: requires us to administer tests of self-esteem and depression Individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis.
Operational Definition • A statement of the procedures used to define research variables • Allows for replication & expansion of research • Often requires development of multi-faceted survey • Must be objective and clearly stated
Research Approaches • Descriptive • Naturalistic Observation • Correlational • Experimental
Descriptive Methods • Used to describe behavior, not explain it • Case studies • Surveys • Naturalistic observation
Describing and Observing Behavior and Mental Processes Case Study A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles. Used to describe behavior - not explain it. Susan Kuklin/ Photo Researchers What can happen
Survey A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people. Used to describe behavior - not to explain it. http://www.lynnefeatherstone.org
Survey Random Sampling Each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample = unbiased results If the survey sample is biased, its results are not a valid representation of the population. Sample Population
Naturalistic Observation Observe behavior in a natural environment and record what we see Technique for describing behavior - not explaining it Courtesy of Gilda Morelli
Correlation When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate • Positive correlation: when the amount of Variable A • increases, the amount of Variable B also increases or • when the amount of Variable A decreases, the amount • Of Variable B also decreases • Negative correlation: when the amount of Variable A • increases, the amount of Variable B decreases or when • the amount of Variable A decreases, the amount • of Variable B increases
Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) Correlation coefficient Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00) Correlation When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables. r = + 0.37
Scatterplots Perfect positive correlation (+1.00) Scatterplot a graph comprised of points that are generated by values of two variables • Slope depicts the direction • Amount of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship
Scatterplots Perfect negative correlation (-1.00) No relationship (0.00)
Correlation and Causation or Correlation does not mean causation!
Do not conceive Conceive Adopt Confirming evidence Disconfirming evidence Do not adopt Disconfirming evidence Confirming evidence Illusory Correlation The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. Parents conceive children after adoption. Michael Newman Jr./ Photo Edit
Order in Random Events Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns.
Order in Random Events Given large numbers of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order. Jerry Telfer/ San Francisco Chronicle Angelo and Maria Gallina won two California lottery games on the same day.
Experimentation • Experiments isolate causes and their effects • Experiments are used to • Manipulate factors that interest us, • Other factors are kept under control Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.
Evaluating Therapies Double-blind Procedure In evaluating drug therapies, patients and experimenters’ assistants should remain unaware of which patients had the real treatment and which patients had the placebo treatment. Allows for unbiased interpretation of results.
Evaluating Therapies Assigning participants randomly to either experimental or control (formula-fed) condition Minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups Random Assignment
Independent Variable A factor manipulated by the experimenter • Focus of the study