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Organizational Change Theories

Organizational Change Theories. Closed Systems Structuralism Open Systems Contingency Theories Conflict Theories Critical Theories Resistance Theories Diffusion Theories Connectivism Theories Chaos Theories. Machine Theory. Frederick Taylor “Principals of Scientific Management—

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Organizational Change Theories

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  1. Organizational Change Theories • Closed Systems • Structuralism • Open Systems • Contingency Theories • Conflict Theories • Critical Theories • Resistance Theories • Diffusion Theories • Connectivism Theories • Chaos Theories

  2. Machine Theory • Frederick Taylor “Principals of Scientific Management— • scientific method to improve productivity, • optimizing tasks, • simplifying jobs, • Specializing • Time Studies – most efficient way to perform a job • initiatives and incentives increase productivity • Reorganized from the bottom up (task to manager)

  3. Machine Theory • Frederick Taylor “Principals of Scientific Management— • 4 Principles • Replace rule of thumb work with task studies • Scientifically train & develop worker • Cooperate with workers to ensure efficiency • Divide work equally between managers & workers so managers could plan as workers worked

  4. Machine Theory • Frederick Taylor “Principals of Scientific Management— • Drawbacks • Increase in monotony of work • Missing from job – skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback • Dehumanizing

  5. Machine Theory • Fayol – Administrative Theory • Reorganized from the top-down • Formalized studies general guidelines for the worker • Hierarchical pyramid structure of control • Superiors and subordinates—chain of command • Departmentalization groups related by process, purpose, or place Organization is a machine to produce a product as efficient as possible.

  6. Machine Theory • Max Weber (1900) • Bureaucracy Theory • Ideal bureaucracy has hierarchy • Impersonal • Written rules of conduct • Promotion based on achievement • Division of labor for efficiency • Goal oriented • Draw back  relied on benevolence of superiors

  7. HR & Motivational Theories • Elton Mayo • Hawthorne Studies • Work is a group activity • Need for recognition, security and sense of belonging • Complaints revolve around sense of status • Group collaboration must be planned and developed to develop cohesion to resist disruptions Organization is a social group or work team

  8. HR & Motivational Theories • Abraham Maslow (1940s) • 5 Needs • Physiological • Safety • Love • Esteem • Self-actualization or self-fulfillment • The urge to create, produce, for job satisfaction • Management should meet the upper needs

  9. HR & Motivational Theories • Douglas McGregor “The Human Side of Enterprise” (1960) 2 types of managerial assumptions (Theory X & Y) • Theory X Assumptions • Humans have a dislike for work – must be controlled or threatened to do work • Most people want direction, dislike responsibility, desires security above all else • Most people need to know what is expected of them and be held accountable.

  10. HR & Motivational Theories • Douglas McGregor “The Human Side of Enterprise” (1960) 2 types of managerial assumptions (Theory X & Y) • Theory Y Assumptions • Work is a natural state for humans • Man can direct his own steps if he is committed to the goals of the organization—if explained fully & grasps vision • If the job is satisfying, people will be committed • Most men seek responsibility • Creativity and ingenuity can be used by employees to solve problems • Most people have a lot more potential than they are given the opportunity to use.

  11. HR & Motivational Theories • Frederick Herzberg • 2 Factor Hygiene & Motivation Theory • Hygiene Theory • Job environment, the company, policies, administration, kind of supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, salary, status, and security

  12. HR & Motivational Theories • Frederick Herzberg • 2 Factor Hygiene & Motivation Theory • Motivation Theory • Job Opportunities – achievement, recognition, growth / advancement • Interest in the job Both approaches must be done simultaneously. Treat people as best you can AND Use them in jobs where they can achieve and grow

  13. HR & Motivational Theories • Lewins – Informal groups

  14. Structuralism – Bridge between Open & Closed Systems (1930-70s) • Political struggle between rational and irrational

  15. Structuralism – Bridge between Open & Closed Systems (1930-70s) • Chester Bernard (1938) • The Functions of the Executive • Recycled Spencer’s Organismic Perspective • Organizations exist by cooperation, willingness of workers, contributions toward a common purpose • Management creates the goals & Moral Imperative that binds workers to collective good

  16. Structuralism – Bridge between Open & Closed Systems (1930-70s) • Philip Selznick & Institutionalism • Resurrects Machine Theory with a twist • Organization strikes bargains with its environment that change the present objectives • Organization has such personality that reflects social needs and pressures (adaptation) from the environment • Operative Goals – what it does • Professed Goals – what it says it does (preparing students for the future)

  17. Selznick (1996) • Organizations seek “legitimacy” to justify what they do. • They tend to seek similarity for legitimacy • Coercive Isomorphism—forced to act a certain way by either another organization (TEA) or cultural expectations – my school had doors & windows • Mimetic Isomorphism—copy each other when they are uncertain what to do • Normative Isomorphism—everyone takes the same training and interact professionally

  18. Structuralism – Bridge between Open & Closed Systems (1930-70s) • Ralph Stogdill (1948) -Tautological • 124 Characteristics of Leaders • Capacity (intelligence, alertness) • Achievement (scholarship, knowledge) • Responsibility (dependable, initiative) • Participation (active, social, cooperative) • Status (socio-economic, position, popularity) • Situation (mental level, status, skills)

  19. Structuralism – Bridge between Open & Closed Systems (1930-70s) • McCall & Lombardo (1983) Anti-Traits • Insensitive to others (abrasive, bully) • Cold, aloof, arrogant • Betrayal of trust • Overly ambitious: thinking of next job, • Specific performance problems • Over-managing – unable to delegate • Unable to think strategically • Unable to adapt • Over-dependent on a mentor

  20. Open-System Theory • Katz & Kahn(1978) • Organization’s adaptive interaction with changing environment emphasized: goal is survival • Organization is active system= • Input • Throughput • output Organization is a living organism

  21. Open Systems (1960s) • Open systems are made up of subsystems that create homeostatsis for the organism. Mapping the environment requires sensing and assigning meaning to symbolic Information • Imprints parts of the environment onto the organization. • Symbolic  Motivation & Communication • Feedback allows system to change goals “on the fly”

  22. Open Systems (1960s) • Harold Leavitt (1964) • 4 subsystems • Tasks—processes performed in system • Structure—organization, governed • Technology—type of equipment, knowledge, methods • Humans—skills, attitudes, roles, motivators

  23. Open Systems (1960s) • Daniel Katz & Robert Kahn(1966) • 5 subsystems • Technology—production • Managerial • Supportive –interact with environment for influx of energy • Maintenance—forces of stability • Adaptive—forces devoted to change

  24. Open Systems (1960s) • John Seiler’s (1967) • Forces in the environment • Internal • Inputs • Outputs • Actual behaviors

  25. Open Systems (1960s) • Getzel-Guba Model morphed • Environment • CommunitiesCollectivesNorms, Values • Social System (school) • GroupsIndividual • Interdependencies  personalities • Role expectationNeeds School’s Response

  26. Open Systems (1960s) • Getzel-Guba Model morphed • Carol Shakeshaft & Irene Nowell (1984) argued that GG Model did not describe the reality of the feminine experience – especially with role expectations “keepers of the private realm”

  27. Open Systems (1960s) • Getzel-Guba Model morphed • Environment • CommunitiesCollectivesNorms, Values • Social System (school) • GroupsIndividual • Interdependencies  personalities • Role expectationNeeds School’s Response

  28. Open Systems (1960s) • Process Theoryinteractive processes that underlie motivation • Vroom’s Expectancy Theory • Valency=Effort + Expectancy +Choice

  29. Flow of Information • Machine Theory – bottom up • Bureaucracy Theory – top down • HR – horizontal and vertical inside organization • Structuralism – depending on leadership traits • Open systems – horizontal & vertical both inside and outside the organization, loop-backs • J.G. Miller’s Information Overload

  30. Flow of Information • J.G. Miller’s Information Overload • Results in • Omission • Error • Queuing • Filtering • Approximation Siemen’s Connectivists Theory of hyper processing & multitasking.

  31. Contingency Theory • Positivistic • Nomothetic—law-like regularities • Methodologically positivistic – empirical research (measures variables & statistical analysis) • Structure measured by material factors rather than idealistic factors • Deterministic –required responses • Consciously scientific style

  32. Contingency Theory (1960-70s) • Generalizable relationship between organizational and environmental contingencies, organizational structure, and leadership. • Organizational contingencies include size, task structure, environmental factors – usually uncertainty • The leader’s job is to alter the organizational structure to keep the system in sync with environmental contingencies • Lawrence & Lorsch (1967)

  33. Contingency Theory (1960-70s) • Lawrence & Lorsch (1967) • Differentiation of • specialists • Predictable environments foster stable craftsmen • Generalists are required for unstable environments • Space – depts in different locations • Structure /Leadership Styles • Size

  34. Contingency Theory (1960-70s) • Structure /Leadership Styles

  35. Conflict Theory

  36. Critical Theory

  37. Innovation, Diffusion, Change Theory • Hargreaves & Fullen (1996) change is “messy” • Everett Rogers: • Process of distributing innovation through a social system – communication-based model • Community of Teachers (not learners) seem to share superficial tricks or tips but not deep investigations into issues of teaching, learning and the profession.

  38. Diffusion formal & Informal Communities • Everett Rogers (1995) Diffusion of Innovations • Example: Self-organizing virtual learning communities versus the processes in bounded learning communities • 4-Elements Present • The new idea – innovation • Communication channels • Time • Social System engaged in joint problem solving activities to accomplish goals

  39. Diffusion Theory - Rogers • Innovations as perceived by individuals • Relative advantage – better than what we are doing? • Compatibility-consistent with existing values, needs • Complexity—difficult to understand or use? • Trialability –is it used on a limited basis • Observability – do we see results? • Support – time, energy, resources, political backing

  40. Diffusion Process -- Rogers • E.M. Rogers(1995) Diffusion of Innovations • 5-Step Adoption Process • Awareness --knowledge • Interest--persuasion • Decision—engages in activity • Trial /Implementation • Confirmation -- Adoption

  41. Diffusion Process • Rate of Adoption • Perceived attributes of innovation • Type of innovation-decision • Communication channels • Nature of the social system • Extent of change agents’ promotion efforts

  42. Tipping Point • The concept of the tipping point is the build-up of small changes that effect a big change • Stickiness Factor –staying power of an innovation –keeping one’s attention • Internet’s greatest economy is in fact, attention.

  43. Fullen & Miles (1992) 7 reasons reform fails in Schools • Faulty ‘Change Maps” – to be unique is not a good reason for change • Complex Problems • Symbols over substance – adopt external innovations with only symbolic benefit – CC! Not enough grass-roots support • Impatient and Superficial Solutions • Misunderstanding Resistance –may be a learning curve issue • Attrition of Pockets of success • Misuse of Knowledge of Change Process

  44. Fullen & Miles (1992) 7 reasons reform succeeds in Schools • Change is learning • Change is a journey not a blueprint – planning is continuous • Problems are our friends—assertive problem-solving must take place • Change is Resource Hungery—time & $$ • Change requires Power to manage • Change is Systemic – interrelational, structure, policy, culture • Implemented locally—cannot happen from a distance

  45. Fullen & Miles (1992) other reasons reform succeeds in Schools • Common language, • Conceptual picture—of change process and goals • Multiple stakeholders at different levels participate in reform process • Culture is a priority – relationships must improve to create conditions to share ideas • Sharing of successes and failures • Change is inevitable and we must learn to live with it.

  46. Berkman’s UOID Theory • Influenced by Rogers • Berkmans User-Oriented Instructional Designers theory • Identify the potential adopter • Measure the potential adopters perceptions • Design & develop a user-friendly product • Inform the potential adopter • Provide post adoption support (Burkman in Gagne, 1987, pp 440-1) – this was our model for the TARGET grant –Line Coaches—relationship between developer & adopter was critical

  47. Rogers (1962, 1995) • Adoption Categories explored • Innovators • Early adopters—visionary users, project oriented, risk takers, self-sufficient, cross-curricular communication can integrate • Early majority—pragmatic users, process oriented, may require support, departmental • Late majority • Laggards

  48. Concerns-based Adoption Model (CBAM) --Hall & Hord • Hall & Hord (1987) macro level theory of diffusion • Bottom-up, systemic change • Framework includes “stages of concern” • 7-Stages

  49. 7 Stages Hord • Awareness –TCEA, Research, Vendors • Informational—Like to know more • Personal –how will it affect them? • Management—processes & tasks (information & resources) • Consequence – impact students? • Collaboration—teachers cooperate with others in implementing innovation • Refocusing—thinking of additional alternatives that might work better ready to move on

  50. Strategies Addressing Concerns • Clarify problem, arouse interest, let them generate possible solutions • Give clear info about change, show how change is similar or diff from current • Validate and legitimize concerns, reinforce, connect to supports • Break the change into manageable steps, “how to”, give practical solutions to logistical problems

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