Rise of Turkey and Ataturk

1. Rise of Turkey and Ataturk 1918- 1923

2. Treaty of Sevres • San Remo, 1920: Britain and France divided the Middle Eastern mandates • Division included in the Treaty of Sevres, August 1920 • King Faysal government driven out of Damascus by the French  “The Arab dream had been shattered” (Goldschmidt) • The French and the British practiced “divide & rule” more or less directly

3. However, three areas of the Middle East gained/salvaged independence after WWI: • Turkey • Iran • Saudi Arabia “In each of these states, these changes resulted from the inspiration, the ingenuity, and the industry of a military commander who became a political leader” • Mustafa Kemal Ataturk • Reza Shah Pahlavi • IbnSa’ud

4. Mudros Armistice, October 1918  Ottoman Empire out of the war • Losses in the armed forces: • 325.000 deaths • 400.000 wounded • 250.000 imprisoned/missing • Economic consequences of the war: • Crushing taxes • Deficit financing • Severe price inflation (cost of living increased by 1800% since 1914) • Deportation of Armenians was a major setback for commerce, finance and administration

5. Other effects of the war • Many areas had lost their young men • Agricultural areas fell into neglect • Deforestation due to lack of coal • Deserted soldiers roamed the countryside • Large number of refugees in the Istanbul area; displaces people, refugees from Russia

6. Political situation • The Young Turk regime (Enver, Talat, Jemal) fled from Istanbul (feared to be held accountable for their treatment of the Armenians) • The Ottoman Sultan aligned himself with the Western powers and gave in to their demands • French troops entered Cilicia (southern Anatolia) • Italians claimed Antalya (southwest) • French and British occupied the Straits and Istanbul • Greece landed troops at Smyrna (Izmir) in May 1919

7. Resistance • The real political struggle after the war took place in Anatolia, not in Istanbul • CUP had prepared armed resistance groups in Anatolia before they left the country • Guns and ammunition stored in depots in Anatolia • Guerrilla bands organized • Karakol (the Guard) created; organization to protect Unionists (CUP) • Public “Societies for the defense of the national rights” set up by the CUP

8. Greco-Turkish War • Entente powers soon realized that the Treaty would have to be imposed; Greece offered to do so by military means. • The Greeks had landed and occupied Izmir in May 1919 • By October 1919 the Greek occupation of a much larger area than originally planned was recognized • The Greek invasion and occupation was a turning point in the post-WWI situation in Anatolia • The “war-weary and decimated” Muslim population of Anatolia joined the resistance (Zurcher) • Many in the administration in Istanbul sympathized with the resistance  information, supplies, etc. provided

9. The army • The Ottoman army depleted, but it still functioned as one entity • Command structure intact • Leading officers almost uniformly supported the resistance  sabotaged disarming and demobilization and secretly supplied resistance organizations • The army’s strength in Anatolia was still unimpressive • In the west they could only harass the Greek army • In the south the situation was a bit better; fighting broke out gainst the French/Armenians in Jan. 1920 • Stronghold of the Ottoman army was in the east; higher numbers, better equipped and in an inaccessible area

10. Mustafa Kemal • Had been early member of the CUP, but had become estranged because of internal rival factions  by 1919 he was not associated with the regime • Had become famous as a general during the war; heroic and respected commander in the Dardanelles , Anatolia and Palestine • An ideal candidate for the leadership of the resistance • Mustafa Kemal was appointed inspector of the Third Army in the East on behalf of the Ottoman government (but in reality arranged by supporters of the resistance). His mission was to pacify and disarm the Eastern region. • Landed in Samsun May 19, 1919 (– four days after Greek landing at Izmir)

11. Mustafa Kemal was dismissed (just after he had resigned) by the government in Istanbul early in July as a result of his activities in the east • The military strongman who had been sent to arrest Mustafa Kemal refused to obey orders and claimed his loyalty to Kemal and the national resistance • Majority of the army followed his example Result: Open split from the government with the support of the army

12. Congress of Erzurum • Mustafa Kemal began effort to unite regional organizations to one national resistance • Circular sent to all civil and military authorities in Anatolia • The country was in danger • The government in Istanbul would not protect it • Only the will of the nation could save it • A congress met in Erzurum in July; participants from Eastern Anatolia agreed on ten-point declaration

13. The major resolutions of the Erzurum Congress. 1) The unity and integrity of the country are in danger; the mother-land is undivided 2) By no means nobody will emigrate from the region; the minorities' destructive and dividing deeds will not be permitted. 3) Every kind of national struggle is going to be fulfill to protect the independence and integrity of the mother-land. 4) Mandate and protection are not acceptable.

14. Treaty of Sevres on Turkey • Straits under permanent Allied commission • Eastern Anatolia  Armenia and possibly also Kurdistan • Greece would get Thrace and Smyrna (backed by Britain) • Italy and France would get parts of southwestern Anatolia • The Capitulations would be restored and extended The Sultan signed.

15. National Congress in Sivas • September, 1919 • Resolutions from Erzurum adopted  National Pact • A representative committee was elected and Mustafa Kemal was made its president • National executive of the resistance movement located in Ankara (from Dec. 1919) • Rapprochement between the government and resistance movement had no practical effect

16. Parliament • Last general election of the Ottoman Empire took place in December 1919 • The Defense of Rights Society in complete control of elections in Anatolia • Anatolian representatives conferred with Mustafa Kemal in Ankara before going to Istanbul • The parliament in Istanbul acted as the mouthpiece of the resistance movement based in Ankara

17. British occupation of Istanbul • March 1920: Britain occupied Istanbul as a response to the close ties between the parliament and resistance movement • Mustafa Kemal invited parliamentarians to Ankara and set up a GreatNational Assembly there (April 1920)  The Ankara government was now a complete government