Diction

1. Diction Say What You Mean and Mean What You Say

2. Diction • Is at the heart of any discussion about style • =word choice, figurative language, sound of sentences • Above and beyond grammar, creates the tone of a text

3. Diction • Tone • The speaker’s attitude toward the subject matter or audience, as revealed by the choice of language and the rhythms of speech • E.g. sarcastic, matter-of-fact, cold, energetic, academic, humorous, etc.

4. Diction • Level of language: • Formal • characterized by a learned vocabulary and grammatically correct forms. Does not usually include colloquialisms • Informal • language closest to everyday conversation; may include colloquialisms and slang

5. Diction • Level of language: • Slang • Lively, colourful language that is often limited to certain groups (social, regional) and passes in and out of fashion • “Fine Writing” • Unnecessarily formal or pretentious diction

6. Two-Part Verbs • Simple verb in combination with another word or words • E.g. cool off, sit down, find out • Often form idiomatic expressions that are informal or colloquial in tone • Avoid or use sparingly in academic writing

7. Figurative Language • Provides a writer with the opportunity to write imaginatively, while also testing the imagination of the reader • Helps readers visualize what is being written about • Enhances style by making texts more interesting • Sharpens meaning

8. Imagery • Creates pictures in the reader’s mind, and also suggests a number of imaginative associations

9. Figure of Speech • An example of figurative language that states something that is not literally true in order to create an effect • Some common figures of speech are:

10. Simile • A comparison using “like” or “as.” The similarity between two objects is made explicit; there is no pretence of absolute identity. • Example: • The river is like a snake winding across the plain.

11. Metaphor • An assertion that two things in some way similar are identical • Example: • The river is a snake winding across the plain. • The river snakes its way across the plain. • The river winds snakily across the plain.

12. Irony • Recognition of the difference between real and apparent meaning • There are many different types of irony, but the most common in academic writing is:

13. Verbal Irony • The contrast is between the literal meaning of what is said and what is meant; the meaning of the words used is the opposite of their sense. • Satire (and its cousin sarcasm) is a form of verbal irony.

14. Figurative Language Gone Wrong • Inappropriate Metaphors • Create images that don’t make sense or are inappropriate for your audience • Overextended Metaphors • Are too long, and the metaphor takes control; in other words, the point you want to make is lost

15. Figurative Language Gone Wrong • Dead Metaphors & Clichés • Have little force and tend to be ineffective • Mixed Metaphors • Abruptly switch from one comparison to another without intending to

16. Concrete and Abstract Diction • Concrete words • Denote tangible things capable of being apprehended by the physical senses • Abstract words • Denote intangible things like ideas or qualities

17. Concrete and Abstract Diction • You need a combination of both, but be sure to ground your writing in the concrete (use specific examples to illustrate your points) • Readers remember the concrete – it illustrates and lends meaning to the abstract • The more specific (i.e. concrete) your writing is, the clearer and more effective it will be

18. Weak Generalizations • AVOID AT ALL COSTS!!! • Use examples and always be specific • Employ: • Figurative language • Imagery • Research sources as necessitated by the assignment

19. Denotation and Connotation • Denotation • What a word means (dictionary definition) • What a word signifies without emotional associations, judgements, or opinions • Connotation • What a word suggests • Usually determined through context

20. Denotation and Connotation • When choosing words, pay attention to connotative meanings that you may not intend • Example: • Brash denotes confidence, but has negative connotations • Self-assured also denotes confidence, but it carries more positive connotations

21. Euphemism • An inoffensive or positive word or phrase used to avoid a harsh, unpleasant, or distasteful reality • A tactful word or phrase which avoids directly mentioning a painful reality • (from William Lutz, “The World of Doublespeak” • Only the first definition constitutes “doublespeak” • doublespeak is misleading or deceiving

22. Jargon • The specialized language of a trade, profession, or similar group • Is doublespeak if it is used to make the simple seem complex, “used not to express but to impress” (Lutz)

23. Bureaucratese • A method of piling on words to overwhelm the audience • it sounds good but really makes no sense

24. Inflated Language • Remember “Fine Writing”? • Political correctness can fall into this category • Often also constitutes a kind of euphamism

25. Wrong Word • Incorrect word choice is a common student error • If you aren’t sure what word to use, consult your dictionary

26. Wordiness & Redundancy • Clear the deadwood • Strive for clarity and precision • As you proofread and revise a text, delete unnecessary words but keep or add exact ones.

27. Wordiness & Redundancy • Wordy first draft: • In the early part of the month of February there was a really mean blizzard with very high winds that was moving threateningly toward Halifax. •  First revision: • In the early part of the month of February there was a really mean blizzard with very high winds that was moving threateningly toward Halifax.

28. Wordiness & Redundancy • Second revision: • In early February a (really mean) vicious blizzard with (very high) 150-kilometer-per-hour winds was (moving threateningly toward) threatening Halifax. • Finished copy: • In early February a vicious blizzard with 150-kilometer-per-hour winds was threatening Halifax.

29. Wordiness & Redundancy • Compare: • In the early part of the month of February there was a really mean blizzard with very high winds that was moving threateningly toward Halifax. • In early February a vicious blizzard with 150-kilometer-per-hour winds was threatening Halifax.

30. Wordiness & Redundancy • Make every word count • Omit words or phrases that add nothing to your meaning • Guidelines for omitting wordiness:

31. Wordiness & Redundancy • Avoid tautology (the use of different words to say the same thing) • Wordy: • Commuters going back and forth to work or school formed carpools. • Concise: • Commuters formed carpools.

32. Wordiness & Redundancy • The useless words in brackets below serve only to echo meaning • Avoid such wordiness in your own writing: • yellow [in colour] • circular [in shape] • at 9:45 pm [that night] • return [back] • [basic] essentials • bitter[-tasting] drink • but [though]

33. Wordiness & Redundancy • Do not use many words when a few will express the idea well • Wordy: • In the event that the evaluation system is changed, expect complaints on the part of employees. • Concise: • If the evaluation system is changed, expect complaints from employees. (2 words take the place of 8)

34. Wordiness & Redundancy • Wordy: • As far as sexism is concerned, it seems to me that a woman can be as guilty of sexism as a man. • Concise: • A woman can be as guilty of sexism as a man. (11 useless words deleted)

35. Wordiness & Redundancy • Beware ready-made phrases: • at this point in time→now • bring to a conclusion→conclude • during the same time that→while • in a great many instances→often • on account of the fact that→because • situated in the vicinity of→near • was of the opinion that→believed • by means of →by • due to the fact that →because

36. Passive Voice • Passive voice is wordy. • Active voice is direct. • Example: • Be assured that action will be taken. • I assure you that I will act. • Passive voice often leaves the actor of the verb out of the construction (as in the example above).

37. Awkward Repetition • Avoid careless or needless repetition of a word or phrase • Faulty: • This interesting instructor knows how to make an uninteresting subject interesting.  • Revised: • This instructor knows how to make a dull subject interesting.

38. Awkward Repetition • Awkward: • We had problems solving these problems. • Revised: • We had a hard time solving these problems. • Awkward: • His boss is not like her boss. Her boss is more reliable than his boss. • Revised: • Their bosses are different. Hers is more reliable than his.

39. Awkward Repetition • Avoid carelessly repeating a root or word base. • Awkward: • I got the impression that his expression of sympathy was insincere. • Revised: • I felt that his expression of sympathy was insincere.

40. Awkward Repetition • Eliminate careless rhymes and other distracting repetition of sounds. • Awkward: • The use of catalytic converters is just one contribution to the solution of the problem of air pollution. • Revised: • The use of catalytic converters is just one way to help reduce air pollution.

41. Politics and the English Language (by George Orwell) • Written in 1946, yet his complaints about Modern English still relevant • The errors and shortcuts that he points out are those we have just discussed

42. Politics and the English Language • Questions writers should ask themselves: • What am I trying to say? • What words will express it? • What image or idiom will make it clearer? • Is this image fresh enough to have an effect? • Could I put it more shortly? • Have I said anything that is avoidably ugly?

43. Politics and the English Language • Orwell wants us to ground our writing in the concrete rather than in the abstract. • Be specific, not vague. • Choose rather than simply accept the language that you use – come up with your own metaphors and turns of phrase rather than using ready-mades.

44. Politics and the English Language • Rules writers should follow: • Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print. • Never use a long word where a short one will do. • If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.

45. Politics and the English Language • (Rules cont’d) • Never use the passive voice where you can use the active. • Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent. • Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous.