I. Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior II. Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups

1. I. Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior II. Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups

2. I. Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior

3. activities a person may engage in when identifying his or her own needs for information searching for such information in any way and using or transferring that information (T.D. Wilson 1999) Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior Information behavior

4. Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior nested model of the information behavior, information-seeking behavior, information searching behavior areas information behavior • dimension of information behavior studied • methods • purposes and application information-seeking behavior information- search behavior

5. interactions between information-searcher and information-provider limited to the design of information retrieval (IR) systems models of users in interaction with IR systems (Saracevic, Belkin, Ingwersen) Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior Information-searching behavior

6. Wilson (1981) Dervin (1983, 1996) Ellis (1989); with Cox and Hall (1993) Kuhlthau (1991) Wilson (1996) Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior 5 Models of Information(-Seeking) Behavior

7. Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior Dervin’s Sense-Making Framework SITUATION GAP OUTCOME

8. Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior Ellis’ Behavioral Framework & Kuhlthau’s Stage Process Model STAGE Initiation Selection/Exploration Formulation Collection Presentation Browsing Starting Chaining Differentiating Extracting Verifying >Ending Monitoring Recognize Identify / Formulate Gather Complete ACTIVITY

9. Ellis & Kuhlthau: active search mode of information-seeking behavior Dervin: framework for exploring the totality of information behavior (exploration of the context in which information needs arise to the means whereby need is satisfied either through active searching or otherwise) Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior 5 Models of Information(-Seeking) Behavior

10. Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior Wilson’s Model of Information behavior Information user Satisfaction or non-satisfaction Need Information exchange Information use Information-seeking behavior Demands on information systems Demands on other information sources Other people Success Failure Information transfer

11. theories are models of methodologies, rather than a model of a set of activities or a situation case studies of information-seeking behavior (empirical component) are driven by theories and models of methodologies Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior

12. Quantitative methods not appropriate for the study of human behavior (counting of number of visits to libraries, number of personal subscriptions to journals, citation practices) Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior positivist tradition (1940s to 1970s)

13. Qualitative methods appropriate for the study of human behavior (from allied work in related areas that have built robust theoretical frameworks and methodological approaches) emergence of general models of information behavior in the last 10-15 years) Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior post-positivist tradition (from the early 1970s)

14. iterative model of information-seeking behavior (series of interactions, learning process by the user, implications for design of IR systems) two-step flow of communication model and the notion of the “gatekeeper” informal transfer of information between individuals (information exchanges) An Integrated Model of Information-Seeking Behaviors

15. uncertainty vs. relevance as focus An Integrated Model of Information-Seeking Behaviors

16. II. Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups

17. Information-Gathering by Selected Groups (information needs of four professional groups) Decision-makers Problem-solvers People-centered Self-expression

18. politicians, public administrators, judges, managers, supervisors, business people, institution presidents scientists, researchers, engineers, architects, philosophers, planners, statisticians, economists, computer programmers Information Needs of Four Professional Groups Decision-makers Problem-solvers

19. doctors, lawyers, police, firefighters, clergy, information specialists, social workers, teachers actors, musicians, authors, sculptors, composers, photographers, decorators Information Needs of Four Professional Groups People-centered Self-expression

20. Information Needs of Four Professional Groups sample questions each group might ask What must I know about a subject? What could I know about a subject? What should I know about a subject? What would I like to know about a subject?

21. task oriented goal-oriented people-oriented expression-oriented Information Needs of Four Professional Groups information need /goal Decision-makers Problem-solvers People-centered Self-expression

22. human-human and human-machine interaction aggregated / synthesized / capsulated indicators / trends “smoothed out” to eliminate aberrations assistants and other surrogates Information Needs of Four Professional Groups information modes /resources Decision-makers

23. human-human and human-machine interaction factual / quantitative / detailed / specific observations and measurements (data) browsing documents and literature Information Needs of Four Professional Groups information modes /resources Problem-solvers

24. human-human and human-machine interaction “who to see,” “where to go,” “when to do” coping standards and guidelines / laws, rules, regulations “how to use,” “where to find” Information Needs of Four Professional Groups information modes /resources People-centered

25. human-human and human-machine interaction travel / visits dreams observations impressions Information Needs of Four Professional Groups information modes /resources Self-expression

26. forms of delivery resources role of information professionals (intermediaries) and end-users Implications for Information Service, IR System Development R.T. Morris: Toward a User-Centered Information Service. JASIS 45 (1) 1994

27. Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups conceptual models about information held in a subject domain, by a group of users user studies focus on information-seeking behaviors of distinct professional groups because these differences among various user populations determine how they organize information for retrieval

28. Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups personal information systems (individual’s information handling) public schemes (depend on convention)

29. Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups user’s motivation in storage and retrieval of text is important in how personal information space is organized

30. longitudinal study of a securities’ analyst process of information seeking and decision making are intertwined and in recursive interaction Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS Carol Kuhlthau: The Role of Experience in the Information Search Process of an Early Career Information Worker: Perceptions of Uncertainty, Complexity, Construction, and Sources. JASIS 50(5) 1999

31. study of sources of information used, and of the process of seeking information sources: information about events and relationships in a company’s outside environment the knowledge of which would assist top management in its task of charting the company’s future action Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS

32. External Personal External Impersonal Internal Personal Internal Impersonal Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS categories of sources

33. EP (customers, competitors, government officers, business associates) EI (newspapers, periodicals, broadcast media, conferences, industry and trade association publications and communication) IP (superiors, board members, subordinate managers, staff) II (internal memos, reports and studies, corporate library, and electronic sources) Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS

34. Internal Channels External Channels Institutional Resources Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS classification of sources (Baldwin and Rice 1997)

35. Internal Channels (newspapers read, magazines read, personal files maintained, and other securities analysts consulted) External Channels (company contacts, visits to companies, annual meetings/trade shows, research report recipients) Institutional Resources (use of external and internal libraries) Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS

36. viewing nonspecific information seeking undirected or conditional searching problem-driven information seeking informal or formal Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS environmental scanning

37. viewing undirected (casual exposure to information) conditional (purposeful but nonspecific such as browsing a newspaper) searching informal (unstructured, cursory check of current facts or data) formal (structured and in-depth, directed to a specific problem) Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS environmental scanning

38. complex tasks require more varied sources than routine tasks, diversified approaches to information seeking, interpretation and construction of information, and result in increased uncertainty and anxiety Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS

39. Case designs a study of information systems of historians (teachers and researchers and observes the patterns of behavior with regard to: spatial organization, organization by form, organization by topic) Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups HISTORIANS Donald Case: Conceptual Organization and Retrieval of Text by Historians: The Role of Memory and Metaphor. JASIS 42(9) 1991

40. method of research: participant-observation, interviews personal ISAR systems of historians (spatial logic of PIS focuses on offices, how they organize piles of documents, what media they use, how they process information from the information sources and recall / retrieve documents at a later time) Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups HISTORIANS

41. Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups HISTORIANS spatial organization keep like things together and close at hand (reminding function) organization by form aesthetics as sorting criterion, form over content (oversized, paperbound, old/new)

42. Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups HISTORIANS organization by topic keep like things together and close at hand (reminding function) organization by treatment, purpose, quality purpose as sorting criterion (good and bad books, textbooks and research books, etc.)

43. number of filing cabinet drawers and other storage devices, linear footage of books, journals and notebooks in offices and how arranged number of stacks of material lying around the office (19-49) -- physical scheme of organization, not categorical! sometimes used spatial orientation and other times space in combination with specific labels Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups HISTORIANS spatial organization

44. subjects’ decisions on how to organize documents is individual not based on document characteristics (Kwasnik: order of importance determined by context, form, use, topic, location, circumstance) levels of information storage determine organization of documents: action, personal work files, archive examples of movement in these3 levels: once a semester we clean up our working spaces to be able to reuse information not needed now) Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups HISTORIANS

45. metaphorical use of space: proximity to the chair denotes urgency spatial clues -- interaction needed to remember and recall (appropriate only for immediate action, reminder of what to do) weakens as interaction with documents decreases Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups HISTORIANS

46. problems with retrieval in systems organized around space (losing files, misplacing information, need to rely on memory for recall) memorizing possible through visualization of details (facts in physical structures) spatial logic of elementsis lessvital while knowledge of category structures becomes more important as information is moved from action, personal working files, to archived files Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups HISTORIANS

47. crowding does not hinder but improve cognitive recall (although historians apologized for their offices being untidy); arrangement otherwise would destroy links and patterns and associations that are mnemonic card is a powerful metaphor for historians who are trained to collectinformation in card-like chunks (conceptual nature of the card as unit of information, a single, multiple instance of ideas, evidence, question, quotation, document) Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups HISTORIANS

48. Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups HISTORIANS organization by topic sporadic efforts to build and maintain indexing / elaborate filing systems which are abandoned labeling is difficult because tied to physical object (objects fall into more categories) -- need to produce a card system that would be access to the location of items which are in different formats or make duplicates (impractical to index that way)

49. Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups HISTORIANS organization by topic reasons for abandoning filing systems is that indexing in paper-and-pencil environment entails high costs for the benefits received in later retrieval indexing card system used by historians: systems to aid writing (detailed chronologies in case of historians), keeping track of literature

50. Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups HISTORIANS implications of findings How to implement spatial dimensions in computer interface and to enrich temporal and physical retrieval cues for electronic files? Evidence of inadequacy of existing display and manipulation devices for historians.