WHAT IS A FOREST?

1. WHAT IS A FOREST? Simply a tract of woodland with dense growth of trees and underbrush covering a large tract of land 1 ACRE=43, 560 sq. feet 1 MILE=5, 280 feet Ecosystem-defined as an interaction system composed of living organisms together with their non-living environment made up of soil, water, many plants (besides trees & shrubs) and a wide variety of animal life from insects to whitetail deer Processes follow daily and annual cycles

2. Multiple Use: to be engaged in more than one activity at a given time Recycling: nutrients and other materials tend to move in circular paths within an ecosystem COMPETITION IS SEVERE IN THE FOREST - includes-births, deaths, respiration, transpiration and photosynthesis PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION What about the physical description of a forest?

3. TREE CLASSIFICATION Forestors use classification to determine managerial plans for each stand: METHODS: * HEIGHT * DBH-4 ½ feet above ground CATEGORIES: Seedlings-up to 3 feet high Saplings-3’ to 10’ high Poletimber-4” to 12” in diameter Sawtimber-12” or more in diameter

4. CROWN POSITION: Dominant-CoDominant-Intermediate-Suppressed SHADE TOLERANCE: Tolerant: can survive on low light Intolerant: requires bright light Visit the Columbia County Conservation District to locate your property in a soil survey or visit on-line property viewers like a GPS United States Geological Survey Map (Topo Map) that includes your property -Elevation changes -Drainage Patterns

5. Sound planning and management depends on knowing what you own BOUNDARY MARKINGS: Temporary Markings: colored flagging Permanent Markings: painting selected trees These types of markings will highlight your property WITNESS TREES: normally trees described by their species, distance and compass direction from permanent monuments LINE TREES:trees actually on the line are referred as the property of both owners

6. SPECIES IDENTIFICATION: Management of forest for any objective involves the management of vegetation AGE COMPOSITION: EVEN-AGED=all trees close to same age *produced by physical or environmental conditions: -FIRE -CLEARCUTTINGS -TORNADOES -PLANTINGS UNEVEN AGED STANDS= Contain trees that range from young seedlings to mature sawtimber

7. TREES IN EVEN-AGED STAND OFTEN REPRESENTS SHADE INTOLERANT SPECIES STOCKING 3 TYPES: * Dense=over 70% of crown closure * Thin=40% to 70% crown closure * Poorly=under 40% crown closure *UNDER-STOCKED-does not produce at its most efficient timber producing levels

8. OVER-STOCKED=stagnation is likely to occur; growth will slow due to limited light, water and soil nutrients EVERGREENS-plants that retain their green leaves all year Example-Rhododendron, juniper, pines *Hardwood/deciduous- loses their leaves annually *Softwood/conifer- cone bearing

9. FOREST COVER TYPES Natural group or association of different species of trees which commonly occur together over large areas 2 MOST COMMON IN PENNSYLVANIA: • OAK-HICKORY • BEECH-MAPLE-BIRCH COMBINATION OF TERMS Uneven-aged, well stocked, oak-hickory stand

10. RECYCLING Nutrients and other materials tend to move in circular paths within an ecosystem COMPETITION IS SEVERE IN THE FOREST -INCLUDES BIRTHS, DEATHS, RESPIRATION, TRANSPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION What about the physical description of a forest? - To qualify as a forest * Group of trees must have crowns (tops) that are close enough to touch together

11. To create rather dense shade in the understory Veneer-also tends to have seasonal market cycles that are the highest during the late fall, winter and early spring months GERARD FORM CLASS= MERCHANTIBLE HEIGHT: FORMULA: DIB X 100=% OF MH DBH

12. MANAGING YOUR WOODLANDS FOR GREATER PROFITS Resource evaluation involves assessing the physical and biological characteristics of your woodland and is an important step in managing your woodland for greater profit GETTING STARTED: List your ownership objectives: *Legal description of your property - Columbia County Courthouse

13. - Know your boundaries of your woodland before you begin any management activity - Check with NRCS (Natural Resources Conservation Service) - aerial photographs of property In Pennsylvania, 115 commonly occurring trees: - 16 to 20 species have commercial value: - Oak - Cherry - Maple - Walnut Identification methods: -leaves -buds -fruit -bark -twigs

14. TREE MEASUREMENTS: Diameter=most common nearest even 2” class Tree Height= referred to either as total height or merchantable height TOTAL HEIGHT= Distance from ground level to top of crown Merchantable Height= distance from stump height to the top of the merchantable material in the tree

15. STUMP HEIGHT= 1 foot above the ground MERCHANTABLE HEIGHT= Stops where major branches occur or where the diameter inside bark (DIB) is less than 8 inches PULPWOOD STANDARDS= allows for a minimum DIB of 4” Natural pruning occurs because the lower shaded limbs of many trees die from a lack of sun and too much competition Other criteria that has to be met for wooded areas to be a forest is that there should be an accumulation of organic material (OM) covering the mineral soil of the forest floor

16. FOREST CLASSIFICATION 2 Types of Forest: Pure Stand- nearly all trees are of the same species Mixed Stand- composed of 2 or more species STAND=group of trees growing in a continuous area Forest fires help to create environmental conditions conducive to pure stand development due to the lack of sunlight.

17. Eventually, these limbs break off and fall to the ground leaving the trunk of the tree relatively clear. STAND DENSITY: Methods for classifying forest: DENSITY BY VOLUME: Number of cubic feet of wood in merchantable stems (pulpwood and sawlogs) being supported per acre of ground

18. BASAL AREA: Number of square feet in a cross section of tree trunks at diameter breast height For Example: DBH of 2 feet, will contribute 3.14 sq. ft. to the basal area 3 VOLUME RULES FOR LOGS: Scribner-Doyle-International Species, size and quality are not the only factors affecting the price for the buyer and seller

19. Additional factors such as: - Crossing streams and standing water (wetlands) - Road building costs - Number of trees per acre - Local and regional demand for material BASIC UNIT OF HEIGHT/LENGTH MEASUREMENT IS A LOG WHICH IS 16 FEET IN LENGTH The combined information of age and height of trees in a stand is a direct measure of the STAND’S VIGOR

20. It also is an indirect measure of the quality of the site for growing trees INCREMENT BORER: is an tool used to determine tree age FOR MANAGEMENT, DEVELOP A MAP SHOWING MAJOR FEATURES AND OUTLINING THE DIFFERENT STANDS THAT OCCUR ON YOUR WOODLAND PROPERTY

21. The number of species decrease with extremes in environmental conditions MIXED STANDS Most of Pennsylvania is a mixed stand 2 Reasons for Mixed Forests: • 102 native species to PA • Most species can survive a broad range of environmental conditions PURE STANDS: Mainly due to man’s activities Abandon Fields or Forest Fires

22. Example: White pine and aspen 3 Factors affecting growth: *Species * Soil Condition *Light Formula for area of circle: Number of stems per acre (difficult to measure) Crown Closure: Amount of forest canopy that will be occupied by tree tops as opposed to the amount of openings permitting light to hit the forest floor

23. Unit of Measure: For fuel-wood is the standard cord which is 8’ long X 4’ wide X 4’ high Cord contains 128 cubic feet of volume and between 60 and 100 cubic feet of solid wood Fuel-wood value can vary from $2.00 to $20.00 per cord on the stump Stumpage= refers to wood standing un-cut in the woodland Pulpwood= is material having a minimum DBH of 6” and a maximum DBH of 20”

24. Sawlogs= normally are harvested from trees that are 12” DBH and larger 6 MAJOR SPECIES: *WHITE ASH *RED MAPLE *RED OAK *SUGAR MAPLE *WHITE OAK *BLACK CHERRY Quality of sawlogs is greatly influenced by log form, surface and internal defects and to some extend the growing site One board foot contains 144 cubic inches

25. VENEER= tree that has the potential to yield veneer is seen as the ultimate product -A tree generally must have a minimum DBH of 18” and be free of exterior defects -No overgrown branches -Epicormic branches (boles) -Mechanical injuries PRINCIPAL VENEER SPECIES IN PA: RED OAK WHITE OAK BLACK CHERRY

26. 4 Classes of Roundwood Products: -Fuelwood -Sawlogs -Pulpwood -Veneer These products differ in diameter, quality and value Fuelwood=is an important product on many woodlands Species is not a critical fuelwood factor since all species are considered to have the same amount of heat per pound Example: Cubic foot of aspen weighs 28 pounds while the same volume of oak weighs 44 pounds

27. DEVELOPING A WOODLAND MANAGEMENT PLAN Organizing land- use objectives Plan- describes the natural resources found on land and a program of activities for a specific time period Landowner- describes and determines what benefits are wanted from the woodlot Forester- decides what the resources can provide KEY ELEMENTS IN A PLAN

28. Management Objectives • Maps • Inventory Data • Site & Stand Description • Management and Recommendations • Activity Schedule Ownership Objectives- provides foundation for management plan

29. Maps- provides a graphic source of information * U.S. Geological Survey * Survey Map showing boundaries * Deed * Vegetation & Stand Cover Description * Soil Maps Inventory Data- describes the woodlot by measuring the resources * Estimate of the quantity and quality of the resources

30. Timber Inventory Data- describes the potential of the woodlot * Stand Tables- is a list of the number of trees per acre according to tree species and diameter * Stock Tables- provides volume information as board feet or cubic feet per acre Site and Stand Description- determines quality of the growing site and is affected by the following items: -Climate -Soils -Topography

31. Description Information- the following can be found to describe the area: -Stand age - Structure -Insect/disease damage Site Index- measures and evaluates the quality of a woodland site * The higher the number, the better the site, the better the quality of trees* Determining Site Index: average heights of the dominant and co-dominate trees in a stand compared to their age

32. -A written record should be kept for income record -Management activities should be conducted every 5 years -Objectives should change according to growth and activities Foresters and Consultants- will base their fees on the size of the acreage involved PRINCIPLES OF SILVICULTURE Silviculture- defined as the theory and practice of controlling forest establishment, composition and growth

33. The practice of silviculture is important to today’s landowners who are seeking more benefits than ever before from their woodland SILVICULTURE FOR IMPROVEMENT BENEFITS Involves depending and developing a plan for influencing the forest to grow in a certain way in order to achieve certain goals Role of Silviculture- is to establish quality trees

34. Girdling- involves the removal of a ring of bark around the tree to block the flow of nutrients from the crown to the roots- causing the tree to starve and perish * In young forests, the desirable trees are nurtured by removing the undesirable ones* * From the silvicultural perspective, cutting trees is the primary method of establishing and tending forest stands to meet a owner’s objectives*

35. * Silvicultural practices regulate the availability of water, nutrients and sunlight to selected trees* INTERMEDIATE CUTTINGS Any cuttings or treatments applied to established immature forests for the purpose of improving them are referred to as Intermediate Cuttings and may be undertaken for any of the following reasons: 1. Remove poor quality trees 2. Remove weed tree species 3. Thin stand and increase growth rate of trees

36. 4. Free an understory of seedlings and saplings 5. Remove insect/disease infested trees 6. Salvage timber damaged by insect, fire or disease STAND DEVELOPMENT Stands that originate over a relatively short period of time are referred to as Even-Aged CROWN POSITION Growth in height is the most critical factor determining the survival of trees

37. Trees in a forest stand can be classified according to the position and size of their crowns in relationship to the others in the stand: DOMINANT CO-DOMINANT INTERMEDIATE SUPPRESSED