Metacognition

1. Metacognition SE - Current Issues in Technology Enhanced Learning 24.05.2005 Monika Pilgerstorfer

2. Metacognition Thinking about thinking (Blakely, 1990; Livingston, 1997) Flavell (1977) Child cognition Developmental changes in Metamemory Metacomprehension Metacommunication METACOGNITION Put simply, Metacognition is defined as thinking about thinking. Metacognition was introduced by Flavell in 1977 in the area of child cognition and developmental changes in metamemory, metacomprehension and metacommunication. METACOGNITION Put simply, Metacognition is defined as thinking about thinking. Metacognition was introduced by Flavell in 1977 in the area of child cognition and developmental changes in metamemory, metacomprehension and metacommunication.

3. Metacognition Knowledge and active control over one�s own cognitive processes when engaged in learning metacognitive knowledge metacognitive regulation The concept of metacognition refers to knowledge and active control over one�s own cognitive processes when engaged in learning. Briefly described, metacognition consists of metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation. The concept of metacognition refers to knowledge and active control over one�s own cognitive processes when engaged in learning. Briefly described, metacognition consists of metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation.

4. Metacognitive Knowledge Knowledge about human learning and information processing Knowledge about the learning task at hand and its corresponding processing demands Knowledge about cognitive and metacognitive strategies and their appropriate use Metacognitive knowledge consists of the following: � Knowledge about human learning and information processing in general as well as one�s own learning processes. � Knowledge about the learning task at hand and its corresponding processing demands. � Knowledge about cognitive and metacognitive strategies and their appropriate use. Metacognitive knowledge consists of the following: � Knowledge about human learning and information processing in general as well as one�s own learning processes. � Knowledge about the learning task at hand and its corresponding processing demands. � Knowledge about cognitive and metacognitive strategies and their appropriate use.

5. Metacognitive Regulation processes that can be applied in order to control cognitive activities and achieve cognitive goals planning and monitoring cognitive activities and further revision depending on the result of these activities Metacognitive regulation on the other hand refers to processes that can be applied in order to control cognitive activities and achieve cognitive goals. These include planning and monitoring cognitive activities and further revision depending on the result of these activities. Metacognition can be comprised of a number of elements: Metamemory Metacomprehension Self-regulation Schema training Metacognitive regulation on the other hand refers to processes that can be applied in order to control cognitive activities and achieve cognitive goals. These include planning and monitoring cognitive activities and further revision depending on the result of these activities. Metacognition can be comprised of a number of elements: Metamemory Metacomprehension Self-regulation Schema training

6. Elements of Metacognition Metamemory Knowledge about memory systems and memory strategies Metacomprehension Learner�s awareness about what he/she knows / does not know Metamemory is the learner�s awareness of strategies they should apply to when carrying out tasks and also their awareness of all the strategies that are available. It includes knowledge about memory systems and memory strategies. Metacomprehension is the learners awareness of what they know and do not know. It also includes being able to take action to remedy what you do not know to gain the require knowledge. Metamemory is the learner�s awareness of strategies they should apply to when carrying out tasks and also their awareness of all the strategies that are available. It includes knowledge about memory systems and memory strategies. Metacomprehension is the learners awareness of what they know and do not know. It also includes being able to take action to remedy what you do not know to gain the require knowledge.

7. Elements of Metacognition Self-regulation Learner�s adjustment to errors Covers social interaction Schema Training Helps learner�s to develop their own cognitive structures from understanding information and experiences Self-regulation is learner�s adjustment to errors; if they make a mistake they re-think their method of solving a problem or carrying out a task. This may be as a result of trial and error. Self-regulation also covers social interaction. Learners can gain knowledge and insight on comprehension strategies from their peers. Schema training helps the learners develop their own cognitive structures or framework from understanding information and experiences. Learners who are informed about the training and master strategies use them independently and on a continual basis. Self-regulation is learner�s adjustment to errors; if they make a mistake they re-think their method of solving a problem or carrying out a task. This may be as a result of trial and error. Self-regulation also covers social interaction. Learners can gain knowledge and insight on comprehension strategies from their peers. Schema training helps the learners develop their own cognitive structures or framework from understanding information and experiences. Learners who are informed about the training and master strategies use them independently and on a continual basis.

8. Metacognition Student�s perception of themselves has an impact of their performance, achievements and self-management of their own learning. Metacognition influences the student�s orientation to learning tasks and problem solving. Performing the task or solving the problem influences their belief in their personal and academic abilities, therefore metacognition allows students to believe in themselves. Student�s perception of themselves as learners has an impact of their classroom performance, achievements and self-management of their own learning. Metacognition influences the student�s orientation to learning tasks and problem solving. Performing the task or solving the problem influences their belief in their personal and academic abilities, therefore metacognition allows students to believe in themselves. Student�s perception of themselves as learners has an impact of their classroom performance, achievements and self-management of their own learning. Metacognition influences the student�s orientation to learning tasks and problem solving. Performing the task or solving the problem influences their belief in their personal and academic abilities, therefore metacognition allows students to believe in themselves.

9. Metacognitive Strategies Blakely & Spence (1990) Connecting new information to former knowledge Selecting thinking strategies deliberately Planning, monitoring and evaluating thinking processes ? Utilising these strategies a learner can identify a problem, research alternative solutions, evaluate and decide on a final solution. A review of the literature has identified a number of metacognitive strategies with no clear standard defined in the field. There is quiet a bit of research carried out in the area of cognition and metacognition but there is a noticeable lack of standard strategies across the field. I want to take a look at two of these strategies. Blakely and Spence define the basic metacognitive strategy to be Connecting new information to former knowledge Selecting thinking strategies deliberately Planning, monitoring and evaluating thinking processed Utilising these strategies the learner can identify a problem, research alternative solutions, evaluate and decide on a final solution. A review of the literature has identified a number of metacognitive strategies with no clear standard defined in the field. There is quiet a bit of research carried out in the area of cognition and metacognition but there is a noticeable lack of standard strategies across the field. I want to take a look at two of these strategies. Blakely and Spence define the basic metacognitive strategy to be Connecting new information to former knowledge Selecting thinking strategies deliberately Planning, monitoring and evaluating thinking processed Utilising these strategies the learner can identify a problem, research alternative solutions, evaluate and decide on a final solution.

10. Metacognitive Strategies Macpherson (2002) Metacognitive explanation Scaffolded instruction Cognitive choaching Head-to-hands Co-operative learning This is only one of the frameworks suggested for metacognitive strategies. Macpherson (2002) suggests five elements in Metacognitive instructional approaches. Metacognitive explanation Scaffolded instruction Cognitive coaching Head-to-hands Co-operative learning These strategies can be combined and adopted to fit into the classroom to help teachers develop their learner�s metacognitive awareness.This is only one of the frameworks suggested for metacognitive strategies. Macpherson (2002) suggests five elements in Metacognitive instructional approaches. Metacognitive explanation Scaffolded instruction Cognitive coaching Head-to-hands Co-operative learning These strategies can be combined and adopted to fit into the classroom to help teachers develop their learner�s metacognitive awareness.

11. Metacognitive Explanation Involves the teacher Talking through the problem, start to ask the student for suggestions Thinking aloud Observing the process of solving a problem Metacognitive explanation This involves the teacher talking through a problem or part of a problem that student has difficulty with. As the student pick up how they are to solve the problem the teacher should continue talking through the problem but start to ask the students for some suggestions on the next step towards a solution. Another form is �thinking aloud�. The teacher and senior learners of the class allow the junior learners to observe the process of solving a problem. �Thinking aloud� allows for greater interaction from the senior learners rather than the teacher leading the problem solving process. Metacognitive explanation This involves the teacher talking through a problem or part of a problem that student has difficulty with. As the student pick up how they are to solve the problem the teacher should continue talking through the problem but start to ask the students for some suggestions on the next step towards a solution. Another form is �thinking aloud�. The teacher and senior learners of the class allow the junior learners to observe the process of solving a problem. �Thinking aloud� allows for greater interaction from the senior learners rather than the teacher leading the problem solving process.

12. Scaffolded Instruction Exploring problems with little help from the teacher Teachers role is to support Teacher should intervene if the student is experiencing difficulties What do you think would happen if? How can you check to see if you are correct or not? Scaffolded Instruction The teacher encourages the students to explore their tasks or problem with little or no help. The teachers role in scaffolded instruction is support. They should help the students achieve their intended goal given their existing knowledge. Therefore, the teacher should intervene if the student is experiencing difficulties by asking questions like �What do you think would happen if?� or �How can you check to see if you are correct or not?�Scaffolded Instruction The teacher encourages the students to explore their tasks or problem with little or no help. The teachers role in scaffolded instruction is support. They should help the students achieve their intended goal given their existing knowledge. Therefore, the teacher should intervene if the student is experiencing difficulties by asking questions like �What do you think would happen if?� or �How can you check to see if you are correct or not?�

13. Cognitive Choaching Teacher prompts student from solution Students are encouraged to explain what he/she did to the other students On-going assessment of student�s performance Students are challenged to achieve new goals with different levels of difficulty Cognitive coaching The teacher talks the students through the problem and prompts them for solution or the next step. The students are encouraged to explain what he/she did to the other students in the class. Coaching involves an on going assessment of the student�s performance. Their current level of performance will affect the difficulty of future challenging. Students will achieve no benefit if they are not challenged to achieve new goals with different levels of difficulty.Cognitive coaching The teacher talks the students through the problem and prompts them for solution or the next step. The students are encouraged to explain what he/she did to the other students in the class. Coaching involves an on going assessment of the student�s performance. Their current level of performance will affect the difficulty of future challenging. Students will achieve no benefit if they are not challenged to achieve new goals with different levels of difficulty.

14. Co-operative Learning Utilises the social aspect of learning Breaking the class into pairs or small groups Co-operative learning This instructional approach utilises the social aspect of learning. Students usually learn more from each other than through a teacher or technology. This approach involves breaking the class into pairs or small groups to complete a task or solve a problem.Co-operative learning This instructional approach utilises the social aspect of learning. Students usually learn more from each other than through a teacher or technology. This approach involves breaking the class into pairs or small groups to complete a task or solve a problem.

15. Head-to-Hands Carry out a practical application Manipulate and test learning Helps students maintain motivation towards their learning Head-to-Hands This approach allows the students to carry out a practical application of the knowledge they have learnt. The students may manipulate and test their learning so that it becomes more meaningful. This also allows students to realise that their learning is of use in a practical setting rather than learning a topic for the sake of learning. It helps students maintain motivation towards their learning.Head-to-Hands This approach allows the students to carry out a practical application of the knowledge they have learnt. The students may manipulate and test their learning so that it becomes more meaningful. This also allows students to realise that their learning is of use in a practical setting rather than learning a topic for the sake of learning. It helps students maintain motivation towards their learning.

16. Metacognition in E-Learning Sucess of learning environments turns on the dynamic relation between learner and environment How well students interact with their environment How well they read documents How well they explore concepts, facts, illustrations How well they monitor progress How well they accept help Cognitively, students can reflect on their own thinking. They work out the problems on their own or in a group, exploring different solution to problems, research, analyse and plan their work and evaluate their progress. Learning effectiveness can be optimized through applying of metacognitive control over one�s own cognitive resources. Although this is true for any learning scenario, it takes an even greater role in self directed learning situations in E-learning. In traditional classroom settings the teacher chooses strategies to effectively transfer the knowledge (provides a time schedule, the necessary tests for assessment and continuous evaluation and to some extent the motivation necessary to complete the course), these support elements are often missing in virtual learning environments. An E-learning environment is a complex constellation of resources that must be managed by students as they work toward their goals and objectives. Designers help students manage these resources by providing them with tools, supports, advice, and high quality content. Much of the success of a learning environment turns on the dynamic relation between learner and environment: this is how well students interact with their environment how well they read documents how well they explore concepts, facts, illustrations how well they monitor progress how well they solicit and accept help. So, for educators and designer the main question is: How can we improve the quality of this dynamic relation between student and E-learning environment?Cognitively, students can reflect on their own thinking. They work out the problems on their own or in a group, exploring different solution to problems, research, analyse and plan their work and evaluate their progress. Learning effectiveness can be optimized through applying of metacognitive control over one�s own cognitive resources. Although this is true for any learning scenario, it takes an even greater role in self directed learning situations in E-learning. In traditional classroom settings the teacher chooses strategies to effectively transfer the knowledge (provides a time schedule, the necessary tests for assessment and continuous evaluation and to some extent the motivation necessary to complete the course), these support elements are often missing in virtual learning environments. An E-learning environment is a complex constellation of resources that must be managed by students as they work toward their goals and objectives. Designers help students manage these resources by providing them with tools, supports, advice, and high quality content. Much of the success of a learning environment turns on the dynamic relation between learner and environment: this is how well students interact with their environment how well they read documents how well they explore concepts, facts, illustrations how well they monitor progress how well they solicit and accept help. So, for educators and designer the main question is: How can we improve the quality of this dynamic relation between student and E-learning environment?

17. Metacognition in E-Learning Metacognition is associated with the activities and skills related to planning, monitoring, evaluating and repairing performance. External ressources for help Visual design can improve metacognition Metacognition is associated with the activities and skills related to planning, monitoring, evaluating and repairing performance. Sometimes these do take place in the head, as when we realize we have just read a paragraph and not really understood it. But, as often as not, there are external resources around that can be recruited to help. We look at the clock to see how quickly we are making progress, or we look ahead to see how many pages are left in our text. These supports are there to help us manage our work, our thought. So are the annotations we make on documents, such as problem sheets, or the timetables that we are encouraged to prepare, the to do lists we make, the study plans and checklists we tick off to mark progress. All these are structures in the environment that are involved in metacognition. They help us track where we are, understand what remains to be done, offer indicators that we do not understand something, and so on. Good visual design can improve metacognition. It is not standard to associate visual design with metacognition. Metacognition, in its most basic form, is the activity of thinking about thinking. Since thinking is often taken to be a mental activity, largely a matter of manipulating internal representations, there has been little reason to look to the structure of the environment as a factor in thinking. Kirsh argues for that just as visual design can reduce the cognitive effort involved in managing interfaces, so visual design can reduce the cognitive effort involved in managing the learning process, especially those aspects of the process that depend on metacognition. Well designed environments make metacognition easier. Metacognition is associated with the activities and skills related to planning, monitoring, evaluating and repairing performance. Sometimes these do take place in the head, as when we realize we have just read a paragraph and not really understood it. But, as often as not, there are external resources around that can be recruited to help. We look at the clock to see how quickly we are making progress, or we look ahead to see how many pages are left in our text. These supports are there to help us manage our work, our thought. So are the annotations we make on documents, such as problem sheets, or the timetables that we are encouraged to prepare, the to do lists we make, the study plans and checklists we tick off to mark progress. All these are structures in the environment that are involved in metacognition. They help us track where we are, understand what remains to be done, offer indicators that we do not understand something, and so on. Good visual design can improve metacognition. It is not standard to associate visual design with metacognition. Metacognition, in its most basic form, is the activity of thinking about thinking. Since thinking is often taken to be a mental activity, largely a matter of manipulating internal representations, there has been little reason to look to the structure of the environment as a factor in thinking. Kirsh argues for that just as visual design can reduce the cognitive effort involved in managing interfaces, so visual design can reduce the cognitive effort involved in managing the learning process, especially those aspects of the process that depend on metacognition. Well designed environments make metacognition easier.

18. Metacognition in E-Learning (Kirsh, 2004) Metacognition is a type of situated cognition. it works by controlling the interaction of person and world it is a component in the dynamic coupling of student and environment controlled by biasing what one looks at controlled by what one does in a motor sense sophisticated, concerned with managing schedules, checklists, notes and annotations Metacognition is interactive! The basis for his argument are following arguments: 1. Metacognition is a type of situated cognition. Metacognition works by controlling the interaction of person and world. It is not just a mental control mechanism. It is a component in the dynamic coupling of student and environment. Sometimes the way interaction is controlled is by biasing what one looks at, such as when a student actively looks for important words or phrases in a paragraph. Sometimes the interaction controlled has to do with what one does in a more motor sense, such as when a student underlines a phrase or lays out materials on a table. Sometimes the interaction controlled is more sophisticated, concerned with managing schedules, checklists, notes and annotations. In every case, metacognition is highly interactive, a matter of regulating the way learners are dynamically coupled with their environments. 2. The rhetoric of metacognition is about internal regulation but the practice of designers focuses on external resources. When we look at the actual mechanisms and recommendations that educators give to students to improve their performance, they focus on re-representation or on manipulating external aids. Metacognition recruits internal processes but relies as well are skills that are oriented to controlling outside mechanisms.The basis for his argument are following arguments: 1. Metacognition is a type of situated cognition. Metacognition works by controlling the interaction of person and world. It is not just a mental control mechanism. It is a component in the dynamic coupling of student and environment. Sometimes the way interaction is controlled is by biasing what one looks at, such as when a student actively looks for important words or phrases in a paragraph. Sometimes the interaction controlled has to do with what one does in a more motor sense, such as when a student underlines a phrase or lays out materials on a table. Sometimes the interaction controlled is more sophisticated, concerned with managing schedules, checklists, notes and annotations. In every case, metacognition is highly interactive, a matter of regulating the way learners are dynamically coupled with their environments. 2. The rhetoric of metacognition is about internal regulation but the practice of designers focuses on external resources. When we look at the actual mechanisms and recommendations that educators give to students to improve their performance, they focus on re-representation or on manipulating external aids. Metacognition recruits internal processes but relies as well are skills that are oriented to controlling outside mechanisms.

19. Metacognition in E-Learning (Kirsh, 2004) The rhetoric of metacognition is about internal regulation but the practice of designers focuses on external resources. Metacognition recruits internal processes but relies at skills that are oriented to controlling outside mechanisms! Good visual designs are cognitively efficient. The cognitive effort involved in metacognitive activity is not different in princible than the cognitive effort involved in first order cognition. The way visual cues are distributed effects the cognitive effort required to notice what is important. 3. Good visual designs are cognitively efficient. The cognitive effort involved in metacognitive activity is not different in principle than the cognitive effort involved in first order cognition. A poorly written paragraph requires more cognitive effort to comprehend than a well written paragraph. A well marked paragraph, with key words or phrases, with topic clearly visible and standing out from the rest of the text, will make it easier for metacognitive activity to improve performance. The way visual cues are distributed effects the cognitive effort required to notice what is important. Good design helps to manage student attention and train students to expect semantically important cues such as topic sentences or useful summaries to be visually prominent. Good designs are good because they are cognitively efficient.3. Good visual designs are cognitively efficient. The cognitive effort involved in metacognitive activity is not different in principle than the cognitive effort involved in first order cognition. A poorly written paragraph requires more cognitive effort to comprehend than a well written paragraph. A well marked paragraph, with key words or phrases, with topic clearly visible and standing out from the rest of the text, will make it easier for metacognitive activity to improve performance. The way visual cues are distributed effects the cognitive effort required to notice what is important. Good design helps to manage student attention and train students to expect semantically important cues such as topic sentences or useful summaries to be visually prominent. Good designs are good because they are cognitively efficient.

20. Metacognition in E-Learning (Kirsh, 2004) Good visual design supports helpful workflow. Learners need to plan, monitor and evluate their progress In well set up environments students will develop expectations of the kind of information to be had when engaged in a task, such as solving a problem. Good visual design is about designing cue structure. 4. Good visual design supports helpful workflow. Since learners typically have multiple tasks to perform, they need to plan, monitor and evaluate their progress. Since one major element in metacognition is realizing what one doesn�t know and what one needs to know, it is helpful to have trained the knowledge expectations of students, by exposing them to environments that are well set up. They then will develop expectations of the kind of information to be had when engaged in a task, such as solving a problem. 5. Good visual design is about designing cue structure. Since the cognitive impact of good visual design depends on regulating visual interactivity it is largely about cue structure. Cues, however, are more complex than simple visual attractors. In addition to cues that reveal affordances there are cues that serve as indicators, letting a subject know when they are getting closer to one of their goals. 4. Good visual design supports helpful workflow. Since learners typically have multiple tasks to perform, they need to plan, monitor and evaluate their progress. Since one major element in metacognition is realizing what one doesn�t know and what one needs to know, it is helpful to have trained the knowledge expectations of students, by exposing them to environments that are well set up. They then will develop expectations of the kind of information to be had when engaged in a task, such as solving a problem. 5. Good visual design is about designing cue structure. Since the cognitive impact of good visual design depends on regulating visual interactivity it is largely about cue structure. Cues, however, are more complex than simple visual attractors. In addition to cues that reveal affordances there are cues that serve as indicators, letting a subject know when they are getting closer to one of their goals.

21. A Distributed View of Metacognition ? Managing ressources Processes involved in internal cognitive functioning Objects and processes in one�s immediate environment So, from a MORE DISTRIBUTED VIEW OF METACOGNITION, Metacognition is concerned with managing resources. These resources may be processes involved in internal cognitive functioning, or objects and processes in one�s immediate environment. So although metacognition, in psychology, is usually associated with internal regulation of internal cognitive processes there is no prohibition on viewing metacognition to be also involved in the regulation of external processes associated with processes like planning, monitoring, evaluating, sequencing, repairing. So, from a MORE DISTRIBUTED VIEW OF METACOGNITION, Metacognition is concerned with managing resources. These resources may be processes involved in internal cognitive functioning, or objects and processes in one�s immediate environment. So although metacognition, in psychology, is usually associated with internal regulation of internal cognitive processes there is no prohibition on viewing metacognition to be also involved in the regulation of external processes associated with processes like planning, monitoring, evaluating, sequencing, repairing.

22. A Distributed View of Metacognition � 5 tenets The complexity of deciding what to do next is made considerably less complex than the general problem of rational choice. Humans lean on environmental structure for cognitive support. Kirsh elaborates 5 tenets that he calls the most relevant for a distributed view of metacognition: The first tenet is: The complexity of deciding what to do next, which is essentially the central problem of intelligent action, is made considerably less complex than the general problem of rational choice. Because we may assume that the environments people successfully operate in, are full with cues, constraints and indicators that serve as hints about what to do. Humans are good at using resources, especially representational resources, to work their way to solutions. They are good at using and manipulating structures. Metacognition, from this standpoint, should be concerned with concrete factors, for general notions of processing effort, mental resource consumption, and so on. The second tenet draws a further implication from the idea that humans lean on environmental structure for cognitive support. The environments we work and operate in are primarily cultural environments. The work surfaces we use, the paths, roads and buildings we move in and over, the tools and implements we rely on, is the product of technology and culture. Metacognition is affected by this assumption too. If we operate in environments that have been designed with cues, constraints, and functionality to simplify work, we may assume that we work faster, smarter, easier and more accurately than in less well designed environments.Kirsh elaborates 5 tenets that he calls the most relevant for a distributed view of metacognition: The first tenet is: The complexity of deciding what to do next, which is essentially the central problem of intelligent action, is made considerably less complex than the general problem of rational choice. Because we may assume that the environments people successfully operate in, are full with cues, constraints and indicators that serve as hints about what to do. Humans are good at using resources, especially representational resources, to work their way to solutions. They are good at using and manipulating structures. Metacognition, from this standpoint, should be concerned with concrete factors, for general notions of processing effort, mental resource consumption, and so on. The second tenet draws a further implication from the idea that humans lean on environmental structure for cognitive support. The environments we work and operate in are primarily cultural environments. The work surfaces we use, the paths, roads and buildings we move in and over, the tools and implements we rely on, is the product of technology and culture. Metacognition is affected by this assumption too. If we operate in environments that have been designed with cues, constraints, and functionality to simplify work, we may assume that we work faster, smarter, easier and more accurately than in less well designed environments.

23. A Distributed View of Metacognition � 5 tenets We are closely coupled causally with our environments that cognition is effectively distributed over mind and environment. Our close causal coupling holds true at different temporal levels. Learners are coordinators locked in a system. The third tenet is that we assume that we are so closely coupled causally with our environments that cognition is effectively distributed over mind and environment. This claim is primarily a claim about the boundaries of analysis and the meaning of terms like thinking and planning. Metacognition will often be a process that is partly in the world and partly in the head. If students plan by making To Do lists or by using a day planner or working with a computer based planning program, we cannot understand the nature of planning without looking to the way planning is constrained by those external resources. The process of planning is as much driven by the requirements of the tools. This means that designing metacognitive tools in the right way may be as important as getting students to use them. The fourth tenet is that our close causal coupling holds true at different temporal levels. We interact in a coupled dynamic manner with our environments at frequencies that range from milliseconds in fast paced games, to minutes such as when we surf the web. In fast paced activity expert players become so sensitized to regularities in display and action that they respond to small visual cues in strategic ways. The final tenet that signals a distributed approach has to do with coordination. Coordination is about dynamic fit; it is about parts moving in harmony, in synchrony, matched. Students can be seen as managers of their interaction, as coordinators locked in a system of action reaction, rather than as pure agents undertaking actions and awaiting consequences. The third tenet is that we assume that we are so closely coupled causally with our environments that cognition is effectively distributed over mind and environment. This claim is primarily a claim about the boundaries of analysis and the meaning of terms like thinking and planning. Metacognition will often be a process that is partly in the world and partly in the head. If students plan by making To Do lists or by using a day planner or working with a computer based planning program, we cannot understand the nature of planning without looking to the way planning is constrained by those external resources. The process of planning is as much driven by the requirements of the tools. This means that designing metacognitive tools in the right way may be as important as getting students to use them. The fourth tenet is that our close causal coupling holds true at different temporal levels. We interact in a coupled dynamic manner with our environments at frequencies that range from milliseconds in fast paced games, to minutes such as when we surf the web. In fast paced activity expert players become so sensitized to regularities in display and action that they respond to small visual cues in strategic ways. The final tenet that signals a distributed approach has to do with coordination. Coordination is about dynamic fit; it is about parts moving in harmony, in synchrony, matched. Students can be seen as managers of their interaction, as coordinators locked in a system of action reaction, rather than as pure agents undertaking actions and awaiting consequences.

24. A Distributed View of Metacognition For students operating in well designed environments the activity of maintaining coordination, of monitoring, repairing, and deciding what to do next may not be a fully concious process, and certainly need not require attention to one�s current internal thinking process. The implication for metacognition of all these tenets is that for students operating in well designed environments the activity of maintaining coordination, of monitoring, repairing, and deciding what to do next may not be a fully conscious process, and certainly need not require attention to one�s current internal thinking process. The implication for metacognition of all these tenets is that for students operating in well designed environments the activity of maintaining coordination, of monitoring, repairing, and deciding what to do next may not be a fully conscious process, and certainly need not require attention to one�s current internal thinking process.

25. A Distributed View of Metacognition Cognition is distributed between agent and environment ? When there is conscious awareness of mental activity, the aspect of cognition being attended to may be the externalisation of that thought. Since the thrust of the situated and distributed approach is that cognition is distributed between agent and environment, it follows that even when there is conscious awareness of mental activity, the aspect of cognition being attended to need not be some internal mentalistic entity, such as the auditory imagery accompanying thought, but may instead be the externalization of that thought. But then since cognition is often interactive, metacognition must be too. This ought to shift the focus of research on metacognition in education away from ideas based on classical theories of planning, monitoring and repairing to ideas concerned with the way learning environments distribute cues, indicators, constraints and prompts. It opens the door to studying how environments can improve metacognition by design.Since the thrust of the situated and distributed approach is that cognition is distributed between agent and environment, it follows that even when there is conscious awareness of mental activity, the aspect of cognition being attended to need not be some internal mentalistic entity, such as the auditory imagery accompanying thought, but may instead be the externalization of that thought. But then since cognition is often interactive, metacognition must be too. This ought to shift the focus of research on metacognition in education away from ideas based on classical theories of planning, monitoring and repairing to ideas concerned with the way learning environments distribute cues, indicators, constraints and prompts. It opens the door to studying how environments can improve metacognition by design.

26. Cognitively Effective Design Principles of good pedagogy Providing cues, prompts, hints, indicators and reminders The manner of displaying them has an effect on how and when students notice them. Good design should be cognitively effective Most learning environments already incorporate many of the principles of good pedagogy by providing cues, prompts, hints, indicators and reminders to students, in the hope that these will trigger better, more adaptive, learning behavior. Metacognition is one of these adaptive behaviors. Because the manner of displaying cues, prompts, indicators etc has an effect on how and when students notice them, good designers need to present those cues in a cognitively effective fashion. Good design should be cognitively effective Most learning environments already incorporate many of the principles of good pedagogy by providing cues, prompts, hints, indicators and reminders to students, in the hope that these will trigger better, more adaptive, learning behavior. Metacognition is one of these adaptive behaviors. Because the manner of displaying cues, prompts, indicators etc has an effect on how and when students notice them, good designers need to present those cues in a cognitively effective fashion.

27. Cognitively Effective Design Consider the two layouts displayed in this figures. Which figure would you prefere? Why is Figure 1b obviously better than figure 1a? One answer focuses on aesthetics. It is cleaner; it uses �white space� better, it has more �air�. Another focuses on efficiency and effectiveness. In the language of cognitive scientists, figure 1b is cognitively more efficient than figure 1a. Why is this? Although the term cognitive efficiency does not have a universally accepted meaning, intuitively we can say that one structure or process is cognitively more efficient than another if it can be comprehended or used �faster without more errors�. Consider the two layouts displayed in this figures. Which figure would you prefere? Why is Figure 1b obviously better than figure 1a? One answer focuses on aesthetics. It is cleaner; it uses �white space� better, it has more �air�. Another focuses on efficiency and effectiveness. In the language of cognitive scientists, figure 1b is cognitively more efficient than figure 1a. Why is this? Although the term cognitive efficiency does not have a universally accepted meaning, intuitively we can say that one structure or process is cognitively more efficient than another if it can be comprehended or used �faster without more errors�.

28. Cognitively Effective Design The effectiveness of a structure or process measures the probability that subjects will comprehend, perceive, extract the meaning, or use the structure correctly. a) use the interface, hence not reject it outright as being too complex to be useful b) use the display to obtain the result the users want because the display makes it easier to understand the options and their relations better The effectiveness of a structure or process measures the probability that subjects will comprehend, perceive, extract the meaning, or use the structure correctly, i.e. the way it was designed to be. For example, the display in Fig 1b is cognitively more effective than that of Fig 1a because users are more likely to a) use the interface, hence not reject it outright as being too complex to be useful b) use the display to obtain the result they (the users) want because the display makes it easier to understand the options and their relations better This means that the graphic in Fig 1b more usable, and in that sense more effective. Now, what other features can help supporting metacognition?The effectiveness of a structure or process measures the probability that subjects will comprehend, perceive, extract the meaning, or use the structure correctly, i.e. the way it was designed to be. For example, the display in Fig 1b is cognitively more effective than that of Fig 1a because users are more likely to a) use the interface, hence not reject it outright as being too complex to be useful b) use the display to obtain the result they (the users) want because the display makes it easier to understand the options and their relations better This means that the graphic in Fig 1b more usable, and in that sense more effective. Now, what other features can help supporting metacognition?

29. Personal Learning Management (Foroughi , 2005) The organizer Information on self progress Search tool for suitable content and assessment modules Emulating presence through a talking avatar Foroughi, for example, suggests a personal management corner. As mentioned earlier, metacognitive regulation consists of goal setting, planning, time management, progress tracking, self assessment, self motivation and revision. Integrated in the Virtual Learning Environment, the �Personal Learning Management� corner is dedicated to the management and monitoring of learners� learning activities. It offers the following features to the learners: The organizer: which is similar a �to do list� with feedback fields, it allows the learners to set goals, in terms of single course modules or a group of modules and allocate time or specify due dates for their tasks. Learners receive automatic feed back on their success in completing tasks, and passing tests as well as reaching their own deadlines. Information on Self Progress: learners can choose to receive graphical displays of summarized reports about their status on courses and results of tests and self assessments, at any time independently of �the organizer�. Search Tool For Suitable Content and Assessment Modules: Integration of a mechanism to search through available modules on the server through learning object metadata. Emulating Presence through a Talking Avatar: an avatar to create a pseudo �face to face� environment. Learners can decide whether or not they would want to receive their feedback on their performance from a talking avatar or text. The presence of an avatar can help as a motivational factor and contribute to the quality of learning. Additionally learners identified as having an auditory learning preference, can choose this feature to listen to text contents in their courses. The personal learning management system was developed by the Frauenhofer Institut in Darmstadt. But I,m sorry that there was no evaluation to find. Foroughi, for example, suggests a personal management corner. As mentioned earlier, metacognitive regulation consists of goal setting, planning, time management, progress tracking, self assessment, self motivation and revision. Integrated in the Virtual Learning Environment, the �Personal Learning Management� corner is dedicated to the management and monitoring of learners� learning activities. It offers the following features to the learners: The organizer: which is similar a �to do list� with feedback fields, it allows the learners to set goals, in terms of single course modules or a group of modules and allocate time or specify due dates for their tasks. Learners receive automatic feed back on their success in completing tasks, and passing tests as well as reaching their own deadlines. Information on Self Progress: learners can choose to receive graphical displays of summarized reports about their status on courses and results of tests and self assessments, at any time independently of �the organizer�. Search Tool For Suitable Content and Assessment Modules: Integration of a mechanism to search through available modules on the server through learning object metadata. Emulating Presence through a Talking Avatar: an avatar to create a pseudo �face to face� environment. Learners can decide whether or not they would want to receive their feedback on their performance from a talking avatar or text. The presence of an avatar can help as a motivational factor and contribute to the quality of learning. Additionally learners identified as having an auditory learning preference, can choose this feature to listen to text contents in their courses. The personal learning management system was developed by the Frauenhofer Institut in Darmstadt. But I,m sorry that there was no evaluation to find.

30. �Blooming E-Learning� Adapting Bloom�s Taxonomy into the content of e-learning course to promote life long learning through Metacognition. University of Dublin Trinity College Finally I want to introduce an E-learning course which was developed at the Trinity College in Dublin. The article is called Blooming e-learning. Finally I want to introduce an E-learning course which was developed at the Trinity College in Dublin. The article is called Blooming e-learning.

31. �Blooming E-Learning� E-learning course developed as a web site Introduction to HTML Skills and knowledge to produce a web site Recognise current metacognitive skills and enhance them Bloom�s taxonomy Metacognitive instructional approaches The e-learning course gives the students an introduction to HTML. The aim of the course is to give the students the skills and knowledge to produce their own web site, while allowing the students to recognise their current metacognitive skills and enhance them as they proceed through the content. This is achieved through the use of Bloom�s taxonomy and the incorporation of metacognitive instructional approaches into the design of the course content. This is achieved through the use of Bloom�s taxonomy and the use of metacognitive instructional approaches within the design of the course content. The course comprises in six chapters. Each chapter is aimed at fulfilling one of Bloom�s six educational objectives. The e-learning course gives the students an introduction to HTML. The aim of the course is to give the students the skills and knowledge to produce their own web site, while allowing the students to recognise their current metacognitive skills and enhance them as they proceed through the content. This is achieved through the use of Bloom�s taxonomy and the incorporation of metacognitive instructional approaches into the design of the course content. This is achieved through the use of Bloom�s taxonomy and the use of metacognitive instructional approaches within the design of the course content. The course comprises in six chapters. Each chapter is aimed at fulfilling one of Bloom�s six educational objectives.

32. �Blooming E-Learning� Bloom�s taxonomy (Bloom, 1956) Can be used as a means by which teachers and students can be introduced to metacognition.