Educational Research

1. EducationalResearch Chapter 15

2. Designing Qualitative Research • Begin with a general statement of a research problem or topic • Be sure it is interesting to you • Will contribute to body of knowledge • Reasonable in size and complexity • Setting in which you are not directly involved • Try to focus on qualitative studies • Research question important because it determines design

3. Qualitative methods are appropriate if your research question is: • Contemporary • Boundaries and context are not distinct • Researcher has little control over phenomenon being studied • If qualitative method is appropriate – then decide which qualitative approach, data collection tools, setting etc • Qualitative design is flexible – may be changed as you get into the setting

4. Evaluation of Qualitative Design • Informational adequacy • Efficiency • Ethical consideration

5. Sampling Sampling • In qualitative research, researchers try to obtain a sample of observations believed to be representative of everything they could observe • Although the sample may be representative it is not random • Purposive sampling – researchers use their experience and knowledge to select a sample of participants that they believe can provide the relevant information about the topic or setting Sample size: • In qualitative research – typically, sampling should be terminated when no new information is forthcoming from new units – called data saturation

6. Sampling cont Variations of purposive sampling Comprehensive sampling - use when the number of units is small (e.g., study all students with physical disabilities in a preschool, not just some) Critical case sampling – select a single unit (person, organization) that provides a crucial test of a theory or program Maximum variation sampling – sample units that maximize differences on specified characteristics (e.g., study preschools in different locations, preschools where the characteristics of the children differ, preschools with different degrees of parent involvement

7. Sampling cont Extreme case sampling – selects units that are special or unusual (e.g., a preschool in an inner-city area that has made extraordinary progress with youngsters) Typical case sampling – selects units that are considered typical of the phenomenon to be studied (e.g., study a preschool that is typical, not high or low in achievement) Homogeneous sampling – choose a unit that is homogeneous in attitudes, experiences (e.g., special education teachers) Snowball or chain sampling – initial subjects choose others who would be appropriate for the sampling

8. Data Collection Methods - Qualitative Observation – goal is a complete description of behavior in a specific natural setting; take place over a period of time and proceeds without any prior hypotheses. Rely on narrative or words to describe the setting, behaviors, and interactions. Choose a site to observe and obtain the required permission. Observer Roles: Complete or covert participant – participates as a member of the group but does not identify self as the researcher; need to check with IRB of college or university to determine if this is acceptable.

9. Observation cont Participant observer – actively participates so that events can be experienced in the same way as the participants. Group knows the observer is the researcher Observer as participant – researcher may interact with the group to establish rapport but does not become involved in the behaviors and activities of the group. This is a more peripheral than active role. Group knows the observer is the researcher. Complete observer – behind mirror or observe from a distance on the playground. Researcher observes and records events as they occur. Considered naturalistic observations

10. Data Collection Methods cont. Collaborative partner – equal partnership in the research process between the researcher and participants. Observer effect - group members behave differently then they normally do because they are being observed Observer expectation – knows the participants are associated with certain characteristics and may expect certain behaviors. Observer bias - when the observer’s personal attitudes and values affect the observation and/or the interpretation

11. Data Collection cont. • Field Notes – data collected during observations; during observation make brief notes then later expand your account of the observation as field notes. • Contain: • Descriptive part – describe the setting, the people and their reactions and interpersonal relationships and account of events • Reflective part – the following are referred to as observer comments (OC) - the observer’s personal feelings or impressions about the events, comments on the research method, decisions and problems, ethical issues, thoughts about data analysis. Field notes may also contain photographs and audio and video recordings.

12. Data Collection cont. • Observations • 1 to 2 hours • do notes soon after observation • may use audio, video tapes, photographs, if have permission – however, this may make participants aware of the camera and they may act differently. • example of field notes: pages 478/79 in text

13. Data Collection cont Interviews – gather data on subjects’ opinions, beliefs, and feelings about the situation in their own words – Can be used alone or to verify the observation. Can provide information not obtained through the observation. • less structured than quantitative • can go from totally unstructured – more of a conversation that is not planned – what is said is later reconstructed later and included in the field notes • Semi or partially structured interview where the area of interest is chosen and questions are formulated, but format may be modified. • to more structured where each subject is asked the same set of questions but they are open-ended; efficient to use a tape recorder, video recorder if have permission can use both types in a qualitative study

14. Data Collection cont can also use e-mail and chat areas for interviews Focus groups – like a group interview – centers on a particular issue; the trained interviewer elicits the views of the group members and notes interactions within the group by taking notes or an audiotape. • 6 to 12 people • 1 to 2 hours Documents – may use documents to understand the phenomenon under study – autobiographies, diaries, letters, official files, reports, minutes primary source – written firsthand description secondary source – secondhand description

15. Ethical Considerations • kind of information obtained – guilty knowledge – legally obligated to report abuse • researcher’s relationship to participant – may become friendly and this may impinge on the research – anonymity – difficult in qualitative because you know the participants – confidential – if promise need to keep to this promise • reciprocation – provide a written report of study, present findings at a meeting • consent – must obtain from IRB and parents – also give child right to agree or refuse to participate

16. Ethical cont. Chapter 18 Legal Obligations • Belmont Report • beneficience – not harm subjects • respect for persons – right of informed consent • respect for privacy of participants