Chapter 1 Psychology as a Science

Chapter 1Psychology as a Science

1-1aPsychology Is the Scientific Study of Mental Processes and Behavior • The term psychology comes from the Greek words psyche, meaning “mind,” and logos, meaning “study.” • People often confuse psychology with psychiatry: • Psychiatryisabranch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders, practiced by physicians. • Psychology deals with the diagnosis and treatment of the above disorders, but this interest represents only one area of specialization and has a much broader scope.

1-1bEarly Pioneers Established Paths for Later Discoveries • Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) is associated with structuralism and is recognized as the “world’s first psychologist.” • William James (1842–1910) established functionalism, which studied how the conscious mind aids survival. • Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) established psychoanalysis, which studies how the unconscious mind shapes behavior. • John Watson (1878–1958) helped establish behaviorism, which studies observable behavior and was the dominant perspective in North America from the 1920s through the 1950s.

1-1cWomen and Ethnic Minorities Faced Discrimination as Pioneers in Psychology • During psychology’s early years, prejudice often impeded the careers of women and minorities. • For example, in 1895 Mary Calkins completed all requirements for a Ph.D. at Harvard University but was denied a degree due to her sex. • Despite racial prejudice, in 1901 Gilbert Jones became the first African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology. • Today, half of all U.S. psychologists with Ph.D.s are women, and minority group members now account for 16 percent of the new Ph.D.s.

1-2aThe Psychoanalytic and Behaviorist Perspectives Still Influence Theory and Research • Many contemporary psychoanalysts downplay Freud’s emphasis on sexual drives while still emphasizing the unconscious mind. • B. F. Skinner and other behaviorists contend that consequences shape behavior. • People and other animals repeat behaviors followed by positive consequences and avoid behaviors followed by negative consequences. • Behaviorism played a key role in psychologists precisely defining and objectively measuring the concepts they study.

1-2bThe Humanistic Perspective Stresses Personal Growth and Conscious Decision Making • Humanistic psychology developed in opposition to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. • Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow were the primary architects of this perspective. • Although criticized for lacking scientific rigor, this perspective’s emphasis on conscious experience and the essential goodness of people promoted the study of previously neglected topics.

1-2cThe Cognitive Perspective Analyzes How the Mind Organizes and Interprets Experiences • In the 1960s psychologists were discovering some interesting phenomena that were difficult to explain without reintroducing the concepts of consciousness and cognition. • The theoretical center of gravity shifted from behaviorism to the cognitive perspective. • Two of the principal leaders of this “cognitive revolution” in psychology were George Miller and Ulric Neisser.

1-2dThe Neuroscience Perspective Focuses on the Nervous System • The neuroscience perspective studies how the brain communicates with itself and other body organs and does so by focusing on the most precise microscopic levels of analysis. • Neuroscientists conduct a good deal of their research using animals with simpler brains.

1-2eThe Evolutionary Perspective Studies How Behavior Can Be Explained by Natural Selection • Evolution is the genetic changes that occur in a species over generations due to natural selection. • Natural selection involves the environment “selecting” which traits of a species are best suited for survival. • The evolutionary perspective is partly based on the writings of biologist Charles Darwin.

1-2fThe Sociocultural Perspective Studies How Behavior Is Shaped by Social and Cultural Forces • Culture is the total lifestyle of people from a particular social grouping—ideas, symbols, preferences, and material objects. • Important cultural belief systems are individualism and collectivism, which concern how the individual is related to her or his group. • Individualism stresses individual needs over group needs. • Collectivism stresses group needs over individual needs.

1-2gPsychology’s Subfields Can Be Distinguished by Their Emphasis on Research versus Application • Seven areas of research specialization are: • Psychobiology • Developmental psychology • Experimental psychology • Comparative psychology • Cognitive psychology • Personality psychology • Social psychology • Four areas of applied specialization are: • Clinical psychology • Counseling psychology • Industrial-organizational psychology • Educational and school psychology

Figure 1-1 The Percentage of Ph.D.s Awarded in Psychology by Specialty Area Source: Based on data from the Summary Report: Doctorate Recipients from U.S. Universities, National Research Council, reported in the APA Education Directorate, 1995, p. 12.

1-3aScientific Methods Minimize Error and Lead to Dependable Generalizations • Scientific methods are a set of procedures used to gather, analyze, and interpret information. • In research: • Sample: A group of subjects selected to participate in a given study. • Population: All the members of an identifiable group from which a sample is drawn. • The closer a sample is in representing the population, the greater confidence researchers have in generalizing findings beyond their sample.

1-3aScientific Methods Minimize Error and Lead to Dependable Generalizations (cont.) • Psychologists also approach the study of the mind by engaging in critical thinking, the process of deciding: • What to believe and how to act based on a careful evaluation of the evidence. • An important aspect of critical thinking is ruling out alternative explanations.

1-3bThe Research Process Unfolds in a Series of Stages • Stage 1: Selecting a topic and searching the literature. • Inspiration for research often comes from: • Someone else’s research • Current events • The researcher’s personal experiences • Reviewing past research is greatly accelerated by: • Computer-based programs that catalog recently published studies • Obtaining unpublished articles from researchers via computer networks or fax machines

Figure 1-2 Stages in the Psychological Research Process

1-3bThe Research Process Unfolds in a Series of Stages (cont.) • Stage 2: Developing a theory and formulating hypotheses. • Theory: An organized system of ideas that seeks to explain why two or more events are related. • Hypotheses: Specific propositions or expectations about the nature of things derived from a theory—the logical implications of the theory.

1-3bThe Research Process Unfolds in a Series of Stages (cont.) • What makes a good theory? • Predictive accuracy—Can the theory reliably predict behavior? • Internal coherence—Are there logical inconsistencies between the theoretical ideas? • Economical—Does the theory include only what is necessary to explain the phenomenon in question? • Fertility—Does the theory generate research, and can it be used to explain a wide variety of behavior?

Figure 1-3 The Cyclical Nature of the Theory-Hypothesis Relationship

1-3bThe Research Process Unfolds in a Series of Stages (cont.) • Stage 3: Selecting a scientific method and submitting the study for ethical evaluation. • Each scientific method has its advantages and disadvantages. • The proposed study must be submitted to an institutional review board (IRB), which monitors and evaluates all research involving human and animal subjects.

1-3bThe Research Process Unfolds in a Series of Stages (cont.) • Stage 4: Collecting and analyzing data and reporting results. • Three basic techniques of data collection are: • self-reports • direct observations • archival information • The two basic kinds of statistics are: • descriptive statistics—summarize and describe the data of a sample • inferential statistics—make inferences about the larger population from which the sample was drawn

1-3cDescription Is the Goal of Observational Research • Scientific methods that involve observational research are: • Naturalistic observation: investigating behavior in its natural environment • Participant observation: investigating behavior as it occurs in its natural environment as a participant of the group being studied • Case study: in-depth analysis of a single subject

1-3cDescription Is the Goal of Observational Research (cont.) • Four advantages of both naturalistic and participant observation research are that researchers can: • Watch behavior in its “wholeness,” providing the full context in which to understand it. • Record rare events that may never occur in a controlled laboratory environment. • Systematically record events previously observed only by nonscientists. • Observe events that would be too risky, dangerous, or unethical to create in the laboratory. • One advantage of case study research is that it involves in-depth analysis of a single subject.

1-3cDescription Is the Goal of Observational Research (Cont.) • Three problems in using naturalistic and participant observation methods: • The absence of control requires the researchers to draw conclusions very carefully • Researchers’ participation or observation of events can alter the participants’ behavior and taint the data • More than any other scientific method, observational methods pose the most ethical problems involving invasion of others’ privacy • One problem with case study research is that researchers must be extremely cautious when generalizing from a single case to the entire population.

1-3dCorrelational Research Analyzes the Direction and Strength of the Relationship Between Variables • The variables in correlational research are not controlled by the researcher. • The correlation coefficient ranges from –1.00 to +1.00 and is a statistical measure of the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables. • A survey is a structured set of questions or statements to measure people’s attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavioral tendencies.

Figure 1-4 Plotting the Relationship Between Variable X and Variable Y on a Graph—High Positive Correlation

Figure 1-4 Plotting the Relationship Between Variable X and Variable Y on a Graph—High Negative Correlation

Figure 1-4 Plotting the Relationship Between Variable X and Variable Y on a Graph—Low Positive Correlation

Figure 1-4 Plotting the Relationship Between Variable X and Variable Y on a Graph—Low Negative Correlation

Figure 1-4 Plotting the Relationship Between Variable X and Variable Y on a Graph—Zero Correlation

Figure 1-4 Plotting the Relationship Between Variable X and Variable Y on a Graph—Zero Correlation (Curvilinear)

Figure 1-5 Difficulties in Determining Causation from Correlation

1-3eExperimental Research Determines Cause-Effect Relationships • Experimenters manipulate a variable by exposing participants to contrasting levels, and then observe the effect on the other variable not manipulated. • Independent variable: the manipulated variable tested as the possible cause of changes in the other variable • Dependent variable: the variable whose changes are considered to be the effect of the manipulated changes in the independent variable

Figure 1-6 The Basic Elements in an Experiment

1-3eExperimental Research Determines Cause-Effect Relationships (cont.) • Psychologists have begun using virtual environment technology (VET)—computer technology. • Research participants wearing virtual reality equipment are “immersed” in an imaginary setting. • Although completely controlled, the virtual reality has a “real-world” feel, fostering natural behavior among participants. • VET is currently being used to study conformity, eyewitness testimony, effects of violent video games, and simulated weightlessness. • The multimethod approach is the best overall strategy to take because it capitalizes on each method’s strengths while controlling for its weaknesses.

Chapter 1 Psychology as a Science