Ethics: Definitions and distinctions

1. Ethics: Definitions and distinctions Etymological definition: ethos=character, ethos=habit Colloquial definition: A code or set of principles by which people live (e.g., Buddhist ethics, business ethics) The study of concepts involved in practical reasoning (e.g., good, right, duty, freedom, virtue) and ethical theories Applied (practical) Ethics Theoretical Ethics Normative Ethics: How should we live? What principles, rules, virtues, etc. should we follow to lead a good life? Meta-ethics: What is the status of moral claims? Are they objective? Is ethics a viable intellectual enterprise?

2. What determines the value of an action? God (divine command theory) Reason (natural law theory) Duty to rule (deontology) Virtuous Character (virtue theory) Consequences (utilitarianism, hedonism) One�s self (egoism, subjectivism) One�s culture (relativism)

3. Consider this question: Why does Rachels actually begin by considering three case studies of handicapped children? What is the general significance of these examples?

4. A short answer: They show ethical thinking in action (and they are actually excellent examples of the kind of position papers and presentations you will be asked to create) and help define �the minimum conception of morality.�

5. Baby Theresa

6. The structure of Rachels� argument The relevant facts The ethical question The various possible positions The arguments: Are they sound? �The Benefits Argument� �The Argument That We Should Not Use People as Means� �The Argument from the Wrongness of Killing� The conclusion

7. Rachels� conclusion �On the whole, then, the arguments in favor of transplanting Baby Theresa�s organs seem stronger than the arguments against it.� (5) What do you think of this conclusion?

8. Jodie and Mary Conjoined twins, 2000 What should the parents do? The God�s Will �Argument� �The Argument That We Should Save as Many as We Can� �The Argument from the Sanctity of Human Life� The conclusion: �In these rare circumstance, the killing of the innocent might be justified.� (7)

9. Tracy Latimer 12-year-old victim of cerebral palsy, killed by father in Canada in 1993 The ethical question: �Did Mr. Latimer do anything wrong?� �The Argument from the Wrongness of Discriminating against the Handicapped� �The Slippery Slope Argument�

10. So, What is Morality? Reason �Moral judgments must be backed by good reasons.� (10) �Thus, if we want to discover the truth, we must let our feelings be guided as much as possible by reason. This is the essence of morality. The morally right thing to do is always the thing best supported by the arguments.� (11) Impartiality Treating the interests of each individual equally, not arbitrarily

11. The Minimum Conception of Morality �Morality is, at the very least, the effort to guide one�s conduct by reason�that is, to do what there are the best reasons for doing�while giving equal weight to the interests of each individual affected by one�s decision.� (13)

12. Aristotle (384-322 BC) Nichomachean Ethics (330 B.C.) �Happiness requires both complete virtue and a complete life.� Book I, Chap. 9, �9 �The habits of one�s youth make all the difference.� Book 2, Chap. 1, �8

13. A Meta-ethical Caveat: The Limitations of Ethics �Precision cannot be expected in the treatment of all subjects alike �problems of what is noble and just (and good) �present so much variety and irregularity�that we must be satisfied to indicate the truth with a rough and general sketch�for a well schooled man is one who searches for that degree of precision in each kind of study which the nature of the subject at hand admits.� Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics (Book 1, �3)

14. Aristotle�s Virtue Theory All actions are teleological or purposive Greatest Good-in-itself is Happiness Happiness (eudaimonia) is the exercise of one�s faculties (rational soul) in accordance with excellence or virtue, in other words, an activity of the soul in accord with perfect virtue Moral virtue is the result of habit, i.e., we become virtuous by doing/practicing virtuous acts

15. Aristotle�s Doctrine of the Golden Mean How should we behave in order to achieve happiness? The master of any art avoids extremes, and seeks the intermediate, the mean, which is relative to one�s needs �Being happy is like being well-fed.� Virtues of Moderation: 1. Courage: mean between cowardice and rashness 2. Pride: mean between vanity and humility 3. Generosity: mean between stinginess and extravagance

16. Consequences and Advantages of Aristotle�s Ethical Theory Consequences There are various correct ways of living for different people. One cannot tell prior to actual experimentation (trial and error). Advantages (Rachels 12.3) Moral Motivation: emphasizes concrete, personal qualities Doubts about impartiality: not all virtues are impartial (e.g., friendship)

17. Criticisms and Problems 1. There isn�t always a middle course of action (e.g., keeping a promise or not). Aristotle agrees: see Book II, Chap. 6, �18. 2. Will a person who behaves moderately always be happy? (e.g., love moderately) What exactly is meant by �moderation�? 3. �Radical Virtue Theory� is incomplete in three ways (Rachels 12.5) Can�t explain why we need the virtues Can�t explain which virtues apply to difficult cases Can�t help us resolve moral conflicts

18. Questions for Further Discussion Why are the virtues important? Is there a unity of virtues? Does honesty have a mean? Does virtue require adherence to absolute rules? Are the virtues the same for everyone? Is �character� a plausible notion? How responsible is one for his/her character? How plastic is character?