Croatian-English / English-Croatian

1. Croatian-English / English-Croatian False cognates False pairs False friends

3. Translation analysis The lexicallevel

4. Lexical analysis - with respect to: • 'reference' (ext. ling. content) - denotative meaning • connotative meaning • figurative meaning • idiomatic use • semantic relations (synonymy, antonymy, inclusion, paronymy • lexical / semantic fields / lexical sets • lexical taxonomies

5. analysis: • within one language • between two diff. languages • formal CORRESPONDENCE vs • translational EQUIVALENCE

6. CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS: I. analysis of lexical units / system in L1 II. analysis of lexical units / system in L2 (formal correspondents) (tertiumcomparationis) III. back translation (i.e. which correspondents ensure TR equivalence and in which case (context of situation)

7. False pairs / friends / cognates Def.: lexical pairs in two diff. languages which: • share something, i.e.: partial match but not completerisk: TLR considers themas TRUE pairs, i.e.: • completely interchangeable, substitutable in (L2) in the same context(s) as in L1 • partial / apparent substitutability because of: • similarity in form (eventualno - eventually) • common metaling. term / label in L1 and L2 (eg. prezent - present simple: 'On živi u Splitu pet godina'; Jasamrođen …) • in some aspects of semantic content (stado/flock - *flock of cattle, *herd of sheep - vs. *jatoovaca, *stadoptica):

8. False cognates • False cognates are words that are commonly thought to be related whereas linguistic examination reveals that they are unrelated. Thus, for example, many people think that the Latin verb habere and Germanic haben are cognates. However, judging by the way both languages evolve Indo-European roots, the real cognate of the Germanic haben is Latin capere, "to capture" (note however that Germanic haben and English to have are cognates, and so are Latin capere and English to capture). • It has been calculated that if one takes a word from a language, there's a 40% chance that one will find a word with roughly similar sound and meaning in another random, non-related language. Because of that, even finding several hundred similar-sounding words in a couple of languages is not enough to demonstrate that the languages are related to each other. Moreover, over the course of hundreds and thousands of years, words may change their sounding completely. Thus, for example, English five and Sanskritpança are cognates, while English over and Hebrewa'var are not, and neither are English dog and Mbabaramdog.; cf. Engl. bog(=anareaofgroundthatisalwaysverywetandsoft; wetland) vs. Cr. Bog

9. False friends vs false cognates • False friendsare pairs of words in two languages or letters in two alphabets that look or sound similar but differ in meaning. • False cognates, by contrast, are words that, due to strange similarities in appearance and/or meaning, are often erroneously believed to share a common root, although the similarities are due to chance and unrelated word evolutions.

10. cognates are words that have a common origin / etymology • Examples of cognates are the words night (English), nacht (German), noc (Czech), and nox (Latin), all meaning night and all deriving from a common Indo-European origin. Hebrewshalom and Arabicsalaam are also cognates deriving from a common Semitic root. • Cognates need not come from different languages. For example, English ward and guard are cognate. • Cognates may often be less easily recognised than the above examples and authorities sometimes differ in their interpretations of the evidence. The English word milk is clearly a cognate of German Milch and of Russianmoloko. On the other hand, French lait, Spanishleche (both meaning "milk") are less obviously cognates of Greekgalaktos (genitive form of gala, milk). • Cognates dish (English) and Tisch (table, German), or starve (English) and sterben (die, German), or head (English) and chef (chief, head, French) serve as examples as to how words may diverge in meaning as languages develop separately.

11. The term "false cognate" is sometimes misused to describe false friends. One difference between false cognates and false friends is that while false cognates mean roughly the same thing in two languages, false friends bear two distinct (sometimes even opposite) meanings. In fact, a pair of false friends may be true cognates (see false friends: causes).

12. False cognates are words that look or sound the same as words in the learner's first language but in fact are not so, causing the learner to make a mistake. False cognates are also known as false friends. They can be compared with cognates, which are words that are the same in different languages.  Example The Spanish word 'sensible' means sensitive in English and the German word 'gift' means poison.

13. For example, the words preservative (English), préservatif (French), Präservativ (German), prezervativ (Romanian, Czech, Croatian), preservativo (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese), prezerwatywa (Polish), презерватив "prezervativ" (Russian) and preservatiu (Catalan) are all derived from the Latin word præservativum. However, in all of these languages except English, the predominant meaning of the word is now condom. • Actual, which in English is usually a synonym of "real", has a different meaning in other European languages, in which it means "current" or "up-to-date" (aktuell in German, "actueel" in Dutch, actuel in French, actual in Spanish and European Portuguese and atual in Brazilian Portuguese, aktualny in Polish) and has the logical derivative as a verbaktualisieren (German), actualiser (French), actualizar (Spanish and European Portuguese), "atualizar" (Brazilian Portuguese) and aktualizacja (Polish) meaning "to make current" or "to update". "Actualise" in English means "to make a reality of".[2] • Demand in English and demande in French or domanda in Italian are representative of a particularly treacherous sort of false friend, in which – despite a common origin – the words have differently shaded meanings. The French and Italian homologues simply mean "request", not a forceful requirement.

14. Magazine in English and магазин (magazin) in Russian (from the French word magasin of the same meaning) mean "publication" and "shop/store", respectively. In Polish (in addition to "publication" and "shop/store" (which is now anachronous)), in Italianmagazzino and Dutch magazyn/magazijn also means "warehouse" (originating from a depot on the back of a shop). • Gift originally had the same meaning in English and German. In Old High German and Middle High German Gift was the term for an "object that is given". Although it had always included a euphemistic meaning for "poison" ("being given"), over the following centuries it gradually suffered a full semantic change to the sole present German meaning "poison". It is still reflected in the German term for the English word dowry = Mitgift, das Mitgegebene, "that which is given" (with the wedding).[3] • Cafeteria means "dining hall" in English, cafetería means "coffeehouse" in Spanish, whereas cafetéria means "fringe benefit" in Hungarian. Homonyms.

15. In certain cases, false friends evolved separately in the different languages. Words usually change by small shifts in pronunciation accumulated over long periods and sometimes converge by chance on the same pronunciation or look despite having come from different roots.

16. For example, GermanRat (pronounced with a long "a") (= "council") is cognate with English "read" and German Rede (= "speech") (hence Æthelred the 'Unready' would not heed the speech of his advisors), while English "rat" for the rodent has its German cognate Ratte. • In another example, the word bra in the Swedish language means "good", as in "a good song." In English, bra is short for the Frenchbrassière, which is an undergarment that supports the breasts. The full English spelling, brassiere, is now a false friend in and of itself (the modern French term for brassiere is soutien-gorge). • In Swedish, the word rolig means "fun" (as in "It was a fun party"), while in the closely related languages Danish and Norwegian it means "calm" (as in "he was calm despite all the furor around him"). This can sometimes cause confusion: a Swede exclaiming "It'll be fun!" will have a Dane thinking "How boring". Different alphabets or homoglyphs. • Pseudo-anglicisms. These are new words formed from English morphemes independently from an analogous English construct and with a different intended meaning. • For example, in German: Oldtimer refers to an old car (or antique aircraft) rather than an old person, while Handy refers to a mobile phone. Japanese is replete with pseudo-anglicisms, known as wasei-eigo ("Japan-made English").

17. similar words with a different meaning are also quite common (e.g., Engl. become: German bekommen means "to get", that is, "to come by", not "to become", and is thus a false friend, which could lead a German English learner to utter an embarrassing sentence like: "I want to become a beefsteak.")[4]. • Another example is the word gift, which in English means a "present" but in German and the Scandinavian languages means "poison".

18. French "Librairie" is the cognate of "Library" but refers to a bookshop. • Another Spanish/English false friend is "embarrassed/embarazado". Where "embarrassed" in English means "ashamed", a similar-sounding Spanish word, "embarazado", means "pregnant". The correct translation of "embarrassed" is "avergonzado". • The Latin root of concur has several meanings; "to meet (in battle)" and "to meet (in agreement)". In many European languages, words derived from this root take after the first meaning - English being a notable exception (i.e. French concurrent is a "competitor" in English). Additionally in some languages a "concourse" (Swedish konkurs, Finnish konkurssi) takes its meaning from "concourse of debtors", that is, it means bankruptcy.

19. Both false friends and false cognates can cause difficulty for students learning a foreign language, particularly one that is related to their native language, because students are likely to identify the words wrongly due to linguistic interference. • As false friends are a common problem for language learners, teachers sometimes compile lists of false friends as an aid for their students.

20. One kind of false friend can occur when two speakers speak different varieties of the same language. Speakers of British English and American English sometimes have this problem, which was alluded to in George Bernard Shaw's statement "England and America are two countries divided by a common language". For example, in the UK, to "table" a motion means to place it on the agenda, while in the U.S. it means exactly the opposite —"to remove it from consideration".

21. Causes From the etymological point of view, false friends can be created in several ways: • Borrowing. If Language A borrowed a word from Language B, then in one language the word shifted in meaning or had more meanings added, a native speaker of one language will face a false friend when learning the other.

22. The term "false cognate" is sometimes used incorrectly for false friend. • False cognates are pairs of words in the same or different languages that are similar in form and meaning but have different roots. That is, they appear to be, or are sometimes considered, cognates, when in fact they are not. • A "false cognate" is a word in one language that is identical or similar to a word in another language, but does not mean the same thing

23. The basic kinship terms mama and papa comprise a special case of false cognates (cf. !Kungba, Chinesebàba, Persianbaba, and Frenchpapa (all "dad"); or • Navajomá, Chinesemāma, Swahilimama, Quechuamama, and English / Croatian "mama") • Cf. Croatian: baba in various dialects, idioms and local speches

24. German-English falscheFreunde- False Cognates • A "false cognate" is a word in one language that is identical or similar to a word in another language, but does not mean the same thing. • For instance, both German and English have the word fast, but the German word means "almost." This is a glossary of the many German-English "false friends" and other words that can be confusing. • But don't forget that there are also many genuine cognates shared by German and English. • Technically and linguistically, cognate words have the same root or "ancestor," but for our purposes we mean: • any "false friend" that can confuse people learning a second language or translators • because of its close resemblance to a word in their own language. • http://german.about.com/library/blfalsef.htmEnglish - GermanGerman-English falscheFreunde- False CognatesGerman Words That Aren’t What They SeemAn annotated German-English Glossary ofCommon False Cognates and Misleading Expressions

25. Why? Where? • Profound changes in the life and language (a dynamic entity) • the influence of English • many expressions from English appear as loan words

26. Where? • in the field of • popular culture (film, fashion and music in particular), • politics, particularly as result of new political order and EU negotiations, • business • the environment.

27. Caution! • the appearance of new false friends • a seemingly inevitable by-product of this transfer of words between anytwo languages

28. Caution!!! • Awareness of false cognates • potential pitfalls for translators

29. Definition: Ivir (1980) • »pairs of linguistic (not only lexical) units in two different languages, which have something in common, but are not exactly equal«

30. DEFINITION • Golobič: »False friends are words which may sound, look, and are spelled alike, but whose semantic fields do not completely, or not at all, coincide«

31. Criticism: • »look« with the words »spelled alike«: very few Croatian/Slovene-English false friends are in fact spelled in the same way (even those that sound very similar) • in most instances we are dealing with similarity rather than alikeness. • the semantic fields of pairs of words in two languages rarely coincide completely

32. EQUIVALENCE • Over the last decade in particular, the centrality of the notion of equivalence to translation studies has been strongly challenged by linguists.

33. Snell-Hornby (1995, 17) • the »treacherous illusion of equivalence that typifies interlingual relationships« • SH rejects the term as a basic concept in translation theory because • it is »imprecise and ill-defined, • presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and • distortsthe basic problems of translation«

34. Chesterman (1998, 27) • traditional notions of equivalence as an »identity assumption« misrepresent the translation process: • »The relation of relevant similarity between source and target text is not given in advance, • but takes shape within the mind of the translator under a number of constraints, • the most important of which is the purpose of the translated text • and the translating act«. • the proper subject of contrastive studies of two languages as being similarity rather than identity, as the former term takes into account what is often now referred to as the ‘fuzziness’ of language.

35. Alt. Definition: (Liman 2001) • »the mis-translation of lexical items ... which sound and/or look as if they should be equivalent in this particular context (or even, in some cases, in all contexts), • but which in fact are not« • The key element here from the translator’s point of view is deception – • the items may seem to be similar on the surface (a ‘friend’ to the translator), but can not be used in the same context (hence ‘false friend’).

36. deception • the key element, from the translator’s point of view • the items may seem to be similar on the surface (a ‘friend’ to the translator), but • can not be used in the same context (hence ‘false friend’).

37. TYPES OF FF • absolute: they are false in every context (examples include dres, fen, reklamacijaandšef); • contextual: they are false in some contexts, not in others (most FP) • pseudo false friends, in which the English expression does not exist as a single term, only as two or more separate English morphemes (examples include automat, autostop, grafoskop, hazarder, internacija,klientelizam, rekonvalescentandreferat).

38. TLR – Caution! • where contextual false friends are involved, • the translator has to make a pragmatic choice, based on the text type and immediate context • Glossaries of FP in dictionaries (Cambridge learners’ dicttionary; www sites)

39. EU English(derog. ‘Eurospeak’) • Texts and glossaries generated by the EU bureaucracy (eurocrats) often create new English expressions and terminology and • may even prefer new coinages to long-established terms.

40. Examples from the EUROVOC project quoted below are ‘cinematographic industry/production’ (instead of ‘film industry/production’) and ‘concentrated milk’ (instead of ‘condensed milk’). In such cases, it is clearly up to the translator to decide whether a particular text calls for the usual expression or the EU term.

41. False friends: • English – Slovene • Slovene – English • Croatian ?!! • Universality vs difference in FP analysis

42. Notes on the new glossary • The Slovene word is given first (in bold), followed immediately, if applicable, by any specific collocation or phrase (in italics), then an English translation is provided, with comments or examples where required. The meaning of the English false friend (underlined) is explained where necessary. Where two-word collocations or longer phrases are involved, the ‘false friend’ element is the one listed as the head word.

43. abstinenčen,abstinenčnakriza – withdrawal symptoms (e.g. from drugs). • advokat (G) In BrE, in addition to the general word ‘lawyer’, there are also the more specific ‘barrister’, who represents clients in the higher courts, and ‘solicitor’, who prepares legal documents (such as wills and contracts) and cases, and represents clients in the lower courts. • agresivno, agresivnoribištvo – over-fishing. • akcija (G) – sale, special offer. The former is used when goods are being sold cheaper for a specific period, the latter where either goods or a service are being offered at a reduced price. The phrase akcijskacena is translated by ‘special offer’. The terms in the glossary (drive, effort) are used in collocations such as ‘recruitment drive’ and ‘aid effort’. • aktiviran – realised, harnessed (e.g. in political contexts); aktiviraneenote – mobilised forces (i.e. military). • aktualen (G) – relevant (e.g. teachings or ideas). Issues and news items are usually referred to as ‘topical’. • akumulator (G) In BrE ‘(car) battery’ is the usual expression. • andragogika– adult education. The term andragogy appears in Webster’s, though not in the Oxford English Dictionary; the suggested term is used far more frequently, even within the education profession. (See also entries on didaktik and pedagoški.) • angina – tonsillitis, sore throat. The English word angina is normally associated with the painful heart condition ‘angina pectoris’. Note that the pronunciation of the ‘g’ and ‘i’ sounds is different. • animator – entertainment/activities organiser (e.g. in hotel). An animator works on animated cartoons.

44. arhivsko (G), arhivskovino – vintage wine. The term ‘vintage’ is also used to refer to the year a wine was produced (letnik). An archive is where historical records or documents are stored; the BBC also has a famous ‘sound archive’ on tape. • armaturen (G), armaturnaplošča – dashboard (BrE). The standard British expression is not ‘fascia’ as indicated in the glossary. • aromat – flavouring (EU); aromatiziranovino – flavoured wine (EU). • avans– deposit, down payment (AmE). An advance in the financial sense can be a loan or a payment made earlier than intended: e.g. you may ask for an advance on your salary when you start a new job, or a writer may receive an advance for his/her next novel. Note that ‘deposit’ or ‘down payment’ can also be used to translate ara(e.g. when buying a flat). • avto,avtošola– driving school. • avtohton – indigenous (e.g. inhabitants, flora and fauna), native, original (e.g. inhabitants). The term autochthonous can be found in the dictionary but is rarely used outside scientific texts (usually on botany, zoology or geology). Slovenia’s avtohtoninarodnostnimanjšiniare probably best referred to as ‘national minorities’ or, specifically, ‘Italian and Hungarian national minorities’; other minority groups can be referred to as ‘ethnic minorities’ or ‘immigrant communities’. • avtomat – vending machine (e.g. for snacks, drinks), slot machine;glasbeniavtomat – juke-box;bančniavtomat – cash machine, cashpoint (BrE), cash dispenser, ATM (AmE, this abbreviation is short for ‘automated-teller machine’). • avtor, avtorslike – painter; avtorfilma – director; avtorglasbe – writer (of popular songs), composer; avtorrazstave – designer, compiler; avtorfotografije– photographer. An author is someone who writes books, stories, essays or articles; it may also be used for the creator of a plan or proposal.

45. bankomat – see avtomat. • baterija– torch (BrE), flashlight (AmE). You put a battery in the torch. In scientific or engineering contexts it may also be a ‘fuel cell’ (EU). • biološki, biološkevede – life sciences (EU). • blok(G), beležniblok – memo pad, note pad; kolegijblok – spiral binder. • boks(G), garažniboks – parking space, parking bay (AmE); razstavniboks – exhibition stand, exhibition space. • centrala– (telephone) switchboard. • cenzura – censorship, the censor’s office (usually in historical contexts). Censure is a formal word for disapproval: a committee may censure somebody or a parliament vote on a ‘censure motion’; or it may be said that a country’s brutal behaviour has attracted ‘international censure’. • civilen,civilnosluženjevojaškegaroka – alternative service (EU).The Civil Service is made up of government departments and all those who work in them. • čips (G) – (potato) crisps in BrE, (potato) chips in AmE.

46. degradirati – deteriorate (e.g. environmental conditions). Degrade is also used in reference to the environment, depending on the context; it has the additional meaning of to decay or break down – in the phrase ‘biologically degradable’ it has positive connotations. • didaktik– teacher, educator (AmE), educationalist (i.e. someone concerned with the theory of teaching or education, BrE). The adjective didactic frequently has a pejorative meaning in modern English: telling, rather than letting people find out for themselves, or »inclined to teach or lecture others too much« (although it still retains the meaning of ‘instructional’ or ‘teaching a moral lesson’). The noun didact is not in the OED, but is in Webster’s and is defined as »a didactic person; one over inclined to instruct others«. The noun didactics, a formal word, refers to the art or science of teaching and corresponds to didaktika. • diletant– amateur (e.g. painter). Dilettante is only used in the negative sense of superficial or ‘dabbling’ in something, which is also present in Slovene. • diskvalificiran– discredited (e.g. in politics). You can be disqualified from a race or competition, but not in the moral sense used in Slovene. • dispanzer – clinic (e.g. children’s clinic, women’s clinic, maternity clinic). A dispensary is where medicines are prepared and given out in a hospital, i.e. lekarnain Slovene.

47. radiofuzija – broadcasting (EU). • rampa (pogovorno) – barrier (e.g. at a railway crossing or an entrance to a camp); izstrelitvenarampa – launch facility (EU). A ramp is a sloping surface providing access, such as a ‘wheelchair ramp’. Note that the AmE ‘entrance ramp’ or ‘exit ramp’ from an ‘expressway’ are both described by ‘(motorway) slip road’ in BrE. • realizacija (G), končnarealizacija – fruition; the glossary also offers ‘fulfilment, execution, performance, carrying out, implementation’. • reanimacija – resuscitation (i.e. the process, or the room in a health centre). • referat – paper (e.g. at a conference), office (e.g. office for student affairs). • referent (G) – speaker, presenter (e.g. at a conference), clerk, official (e.g. in tax office). • refleksiven – reflective. The term reflexive is used when describing an immediate reaction to something; it is also used in grammar, as in ‘reflexive verb’. • reformator– reformer. • rektorat– Rectorship (i.e. the post), Rector’s office. • rekvizit– prop (i.e. in the theatre), equipment (i.e. for a particular activity, such as skiing), device (in the metaphorical sense); zvočnirekvizit– sound prop. The term requisite meaning ‘something required for an activity’ is a rarely used formal expression. • renomiran– celebrated, renowned (pseudo false friend?). • replika– reply, response. The termreplica refers to a copy of something, such as a statue.

48. dispozicija – (written) proposal (e.g. for a university dissertation), outline. The term disposition has the following main uses: tendency (e.g. he has a disposition to gamble’); outlook on life (e.g. ‘she has a very sweet disposition’); a willingness to do something (from the expression ‘disposed to’); arrangement or placing (e.g. of troops or buildings); the power to dispose of a thing, particularly funds (used mainly in legal contexts). • drama – theatre (i.e. the building), play (e.g. ‘a play in five acts’, ‘a radio play’). The term drama may be used to refer to an individual theatrical work, but is more frequently used in a generic sense: thus we talk about ‘Shakespeare’s plays’ (or one of them), but ‘Shakespearian drama’. The word is not used to refer to a theatre building, whereas the meaning ‘exciting or distressing real life event’ is the same in both languages.A dramatik is more likely to be referred to as a ‘playwright’ than as a ‘dramatist’. • dramatika – playwriting (e.g. ‘one of the greatest achievements of modern playwriting’), drama. The adjective dramatic is often used to describe real-life events (‘a dramatic rescue’), but may also relate to theatre (‘dramatic monologue’, ‘dramatic irony’). The noun dramatics may refer to activities connected with the theatre – in particular ‘amateur dramatics’. • dres (G) – (football) strip, kit. Note that soccer players do not wear ‘uniforms’ as indicated in the glossary.

49. ekološki, ekološkatržnica– organic market; ekološkogibanje – environmental group (e.g. Greenpeace), environmental movement (i.e. in general); ekološkidavek – environmental tax (EU); ekološkalinija – environment-friendly product (e.g. washing up liquid). Ecological is used in collocations such as ‘ecological balance’ (ekološkoravnotežje) and ‘ecological disaster’ (ekološkanesreča). Note that ‘organic farming’is biokmetovanje(EU). • ekonom – pressure cooker (i.e. in the kitchen). • eksistenca– living (e.g. ‘He had to struggle / fight hard to make a living’), livelihood (e.g. ‘The economic recession cost him his livelihood’), life (e.g. ‘She was then able to live a true artist’s life’). The term existence has a narrower range of uses, the concept of ‘being’ the most common one; but it is also used to refer to a life lived under difficult conditions: ‘In Victorian times, the poor in a miserable existence’ or ‘The workers were fighting for a better existence’. • elektrarna– power station, power plant (Am/EU);jedrskaelektrarna – nuclear power station (BrE) / plant (AmE); hidroelektrarna – hydo-electric power station. • element – unit (e.g. kitchen, living room). • emisija– issuing (i.e. of a currency). An emission is a release of gas or radiation into the atmosphere. • evidenca (G) – In addition to ‘record’, the terms ‘documentation’ or ‘information’ are appropriate in many contexts.

50. fascikel – ring binder. A fascicle is defined in Webster’s as ‘a section of a book or set of books being published in instalments as separate pamphlets or volumes’. • finomehanika – precision engineering (EU). • fitnes (fitness),itinafitnes– go to the gym, go for a workout; fitnesoprema – exercise equipment. Note that we do talk about fitness (or exercise) classes or say that we are working out in order to improve our fitness (kondicija). • folija – transparency, OHP slide (an OHP is an overhead projector, which in Slovene is a grafoskop); pridelava pod folijo – cultivation under plastic (EU). • folkloren– folk (e.g. dance, art, song). The noun folklore refers to traditional beliefs, customs and stories of a people. • fonolaboratorij – language lab/laboratory. • fonoteka – record library (EU). • forsirati – push (i.e. give extra support and encouragement to). Most uses of the verb force involve compulsion, overcoming resistance, or the use of force; the use nearest in meaning to the Slovene term is ‘to cause (plants, fruits, etc.) to grow or mature at an increased rate by artificial means’ e.g. to force rhubarb. • fotogeničen (G) Contrary to what is stated, the adjective photogenic is very commonly used in everyday English. • frekvenca – attendance (e.g. at university), attendance record, signature (i.e. confirming attendance). The term frequency is not used in any formal way in connection with attendance.