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English 110

English 110. Thursday April 24, 2014. The Agenda. Discuss rebuttals, introductions Discuss Ch. 8, 9 & 10 Return and discuss papers. Structure of an Argument. Review: What are the five parts of an argument?. Structure of an Argument. Modern Structure

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English 110

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  1. English 110 Thursday April 24, 2014

  2. The Agenda • Discuss rebuttals, introductions • Discuss Ch. 8, 9 & 10 • Return and discuss papers

  3. Structure of an Argument • Review: What are the five parts of an argument?

  4. Structure of an Argument • Modern Structure • Introduction (Classical: Exordium) • Background (Classical: Narratio) • Lines of Argument (Classical: Partitio, Confirmatio) • Alternative Arguments (Classical: Refutatio) • Conclusion (Classical: Peroratio)

  5. Structure of an Argument • Introduction • Gets readers’ interest and willingness to listen • Establishes your qualifications to write about the topic • Establishes some common ground with your readers • Demonstrates that you’re fair and evenhanded • States your claim

  6. Structure of an Argument • Background • Presents information, including personal narrative, that’s important to your argument • Lines of Argument • Presents good reasons, including logical and emotional appeals, in support of your claim

  7. Structure of an Argument • Alternative Arguments • Examines alternative points of view and opposing arguments • Notes the advantages and disadvantages of these views • Explains why your view is better than others

  8. Structure of an Argument • Conclusion • Summarizes the argument • Elaborates on the implications of your claim • Makes clear what you want the audience to think or do • Reinforces your credibility and perhaps offers an emotional appeal

  9. Structure of an Argument • Look at the Declaration of Independence and find the following elements … • Introduction • Background • Lines of Argument

  10. Toulmin Argument • Named for British philosopher Stephen Toulmin • Five parts • Claim – the argument you wish to prove • Qualifiers – any limits you place on your claim • Reasons/Evidence – support for your claim • Warrants – underlying assumptions that support your claim • Backing – evidence for warrant

  11. Toulmin Argument • Claims • Debatable and controversial • May start out as sweeping and overly simplistic but will progress toward something more reasonable and subtle • Vegetarianism is the best choice of diet. • NASA should launch a human expedition to Mars.

  12. Toulmin Argument • Claims • Can begin to develop a claim by first coming up with reasons to support it or finding evidence that backs up the point … • Look at the example on p. 134 So Claim Evidence and Reason(s)

  13. Toulmin Argument • Claims • Once you make a claim, people will automatically start questioning it • How do you know your evidence is good? • Do the reasons really support your claim? • There must be a logical and persuasive connection between a claim and the reasons and data supporting it • This connection is called the warrant

  14. Toulmin Argument • Warrants • Answer the question: How do I get from the data to the claim? Evidence and Reason(s) So Claim Because Warrant

  15. Toulmin Argument • Warrants • Look for the general principle that allows you to justify the move from a reason to a specific to a specific claim – the bridge connecting them • Often a value or a principle that you share with your readers • Refresher: What’s an enthymeme? • A statement that links a claim to a supporting reason • Gas-fueled cars should be illegal because they pollute the environment.

  16. Toulmin Argument • Warrants • Enthymeme: Don’t eat that mushroom because it’s poisonous! • The warrant is that anything that’s poisonous shouldn’t be eaten. • Or … If something is poisonous, it’s dangerous to eat. Reason: The mushroom is poisonous Claim: So don’t eat it! Because: Eating poisonous things is dangerous

  17. Toulmin Argument • Practice • Enthymeme: ______________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ Reason: Claim: Because:

  18. Toulmin Argument • Practice • Enthymeme: La Salle University should require all students to study abroad for one semester because it would expand many students’ cultural horizons. Claim: Reason(s): Warrant:

  19. Toulmin Argument • Backing • Support for warrants • Enthymeme: NASA should launch a human expedition to Mars because Americans need a unifying national goal. • What’s the claim? • What’s the reason? • Warrant: What unifies the nation ought to be a national priority.

  20. Toulmin Argument • Backing • Americans want to be part of something bigger than themselves • Emotional appeal as evidence • In a country as diverse as the United States, common purposes and values help make the nation stronger. • Ethical appeal as evidence • In the past, government investments such as the Hoover Dam and the Apollo moon program enabled many – though not all – Americans to work toward common goals. • Logical appeal as evidence

  21. Toulmin Argument • Qualifiers • Make writing more precise and honest (believable) by acknowledging limitations of your case … • Few • It is possible • Rarely • Most • In general • Often • For the most part • Typically

  22. Toulmin Argument • Practicewith Qualifiers • Enthymeme: You will get into law school because your LSAT scores are in the 98th percentile. • How can this be qualified? Reason: Your LSAT scores are in the 98th percentile Claim: So, you will likely get into law school Because: High LSAT scores are an important factor in law school admission

  23. Proposal Arguments • Provide thoughtful reasons for supporting or resisting change • The simplest form … A should do B because of C “The student government should endorse the Academic Bill of Rightsbecause students should not be punished in their courses for their personal political views.”

  24. Proposal Arguments • Three main characteristics: • They call for change, often in response to a problem • They focus on the future • They center on the audience

  25. Arguments of Fact • All try to establish one thing – whether something is or is not so (is or is not a fact) • Has a crime occurred? • Is a historical fact true? • Are the claims of a politician accurate? • These kinds of questions can seem very unlike arguments … people like to think that facts are settled, e.g. the Earth orbits the sun • They become arguments when they are controversial or challenge beliefs and the facts must be interpreted

  26. Arguments of Definition • Arguments about how something is defined • Is a human fetus a “person”? • Is a person on life support still “alive”? • What is “intelligence”?

  27. Arguments of Evaluation • Everyday arguments that evaluate something • What did you have for breakfast? • What did you wear out with your friends Saturday night? • What did you spend your savings on?

  28. Sources • http://www.summitpost.org/chimney-rock-gap/329128 • http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/academicwriter/Evidence/Secondary%20Sources/researchgaps.htm • Adapted from http://www.bowdoin.edu/writing-guides/thesis.htm • Adapted from Bradley Dowden, California State University, Sacramento, CA • Adapted from Andrea Lundsford and John Ruszkiewicz. Everything’s an Argument, 6th Ed. New York: Bedford St. Martins, 2013. ISBN: 978-1-4576-0606-9.

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