How to write a paper

1. How to write a paper Harald Romstad Høgskolen i Hedmark

2. Contents • How to write a paper • How to write scientific • The writing process Harald Romstad ØSIR

3. 1. The paper’s structure Introduction Main part Closing, conclusion Harald Romstad ØSIR

4. 1. The structure of a small problem paper Introduction: (first and last) • What is the problem to be solved. • Survey of the contents and how you will solve the problem/task • An introduction to motivate the reader: • Why is this important • What are the objectives • Company/organization • National point of view Harald Romstad ØSIR

5. 1. The structure of a small problem paper Main part • Be systematic, one item at time, item by item • Show your structure and explain why • Explain your choices • Use theory to explain and to support your findings and discussions • Be analytic • Do not repeat yourself Harald Romstad ØSIR

6. 1. The structure of a small problem paper Closing • Make a summery of what you have done • Make conclusions that are logic related to the main part • The conclusion shall be an answer to the introduction • Try close the paper by heading for • Future • What should be the next problems to solve or do research on Harald Romstad ØSIR

7. 2. How to write a scientific paper • This needs experiences • Survey • Discussion • Analyze • Paper based on your own findings (data material) (research based on empery) Harald Romstad ØSIR

8. 2.1. Survey • Explain, light up theories, teorier, notions and research • Your bases are the theorists and the findings of researchers. Write in your own word the theories, the notions and the findings of researchers • Describe and not discuss Harald Romstad ØSIR

9. 2.2. Discussion • Every paper should include a discussing • Discussions start with an allegation • The discussion is with yourself • The discussion is based on arguments • The arguments are related on theories and your research and findings • Pro-arguments – support the allegation • Contra-arguments - weaken the allegation Harald Romstad ØSIR

10. 2.2 Discussion • One item – one sub chapter • One argument – one paragraph • Support your discussions by: • Examples • Referring to scientist and theories • Your findings (data material) and using statistics Harald Romstad ØSIR

11. 2.2 Discussion • Traps when arguing: • Generalize (from one item to generalize) • Expert (I know best) • Common (We know …) • It is reasonable to think ….. • Value stated arguments Harald Romstad ØSIR

12. 2.3 Analyze The paper should contend • Introduction • Allegation • Analyze the problems • (Suggest solvings) • Closing / summery Harald Romstad ØSIR

13. 2.4. Student paper - research • The paper in this course or other larger student papers • Main allegation, short, distinct ant sharp as possible. (To or three sentences and about 20 words) • You can divide and specify in smaller and more precise sub allegations beneath the main allegation • Connect theories, data, examples that are relevant to your allegation • Write so that the reader understand, get curious and get an answer on the allegation Harald Romstad ØSIR

14. 2.4. Student paper - research Preface: • Should be short, here you thanks the persons that have been supporting you (with full name and title) and what is the background/source to the paper. Contents: • Chapter and sub chapters with numbers, name and pages. • Introduction • Introducion, background, objectives and allegation • This is a important chapter, and should give the reader an introduction to the paper, why is this interesting, important. This is a contract between the writer and reader on expectation related to the allegation • Yoy write it twice, first and last Harald Romstad ØSIR

15. 2.4. Student paper - research • Theory chapter • Do a survey on theories, research and theorists. • Show models, show development in theories over time • Try to make good structures that will facilitate the understand • Method chapter • What kind of methods have you chosen • Why have you chosen this methods • And say something about the quality of your data and findings • This chapter should be short, unless the method is the issue Harald Romstad ØSIR

16. 2.4. Student paper - research • The results • If you have done interviews write a summery • If you have done questionnaires you can put it in the appendix and show the result in tables and graphs • If you have been collecting statistics and information you make a summery of these and put the details in the appendix • The discussen • Here you put together the theory and the results • There should not be added any new theories to this chapter, unless you develop this from your discussions • This is not an easy chapter to succeed with Harald Romstad ØSIR

17. 2.4. Student paper - research • Conclusion • What have i done • What are my conclusions on the allegation • What about the future and new research • not more than 5% of the paper References • Sources: It is very important that you gather all your sources, so that the reader might verify your research, and that he can find the literature you have used • It is very import that the reader know what have you made up and what have other made up. You will strengthen your paper by supporting your conclusions and findings with other sources Appendix • Questionnaires , interview guide, statistics, large tables that you show as graphs in the paper etc. Harald Romstad ØSIR

18. 2.4. Student paper - research • Title • Title should be short, three words • Title might be more abstract and play on words than you think • Use a sub title to describe more precise the contents of the paper • Abstract (the last you write) • A summery up to 120 words • Are written in third person • “This paper is about mobbing in health care institutions. The paper shows that mobbing is more spread than assumed. …” Harald Romstad ØSIR

19. References • When you write something that other have written before you should do a reference to the author • Remember: ”give honour where honour is due!” • By using references you show what you have made up and what others have made up • Correct use of references will increase the credibility of your own work • The library will help you by finding rules for making correct references • On Norwegian you can see: http://www.hihm.no/ biblioteket  studiehjelp litteraturlister Harald Romstad ØSIR

20. References in the text • Contains surname on author and year, and if desired page number • Examples: • Porter (1998), says …….. • It is assumed that ………, (Porter 1988). • Porter (1988 p. 211): • “… competitive advantages are achieved …..” Harald Romstad ØSIR

21. References i the literature list • The reference list should contain: • Surname and initials to prename • Year of publication in ( ) • Name of the paper • Place for publication • Publisher Harald Romstad ØSIR

22. References i the literature list Campbell, D.E. (1987): Resource Allocation Mechanisms, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA. Ervin, D.E. (1997): "Agriculture, Trade and the Environment", s. 7-32 i Sumelius, J. (red) Agriculture, Trade and the Environment, Proceedings of NJF-seminar no. 273, NJF-Utredning/Rapport nr. 117. Holmstrom, B. & R. Myerson (1983): "Efficient and Durable Decision Rules Under Incomplete Information", Econometrica, 51(6):1179-1819. Johansen, L. (1977): Samfunnsøkonomisk Lønnsomhet, Industriøko­nomisk Institutt, Rapport nr. 1 (1977), Oslo. Laffont, J-J. (1994): "The New Economics of Regulation Ten Years After, Econometrica, 62(3):507-537. Randall, A. (1983): "The Problems of Market Failure", Natural Resources Journal, 23(1):131-148. Harald Romstad ØSIR

23. 2. Space line and paragraph • When you make a paragraph you tell the reader that you are shifting item • The first sentence in a paragraph should tell the reader what is this paragraph about • The last sentence in a paragraph should be closing • Each paragraph should be understood by itself • Be consequent, do not use more than one type of paragraph Harald Romstad ØSIR

24. 3. Headlines (title on chapter) • Be consequent • Use standard fonts in word • Use also these standards to make the contents list • Short headlines • Avoid unnecessary words • “Short, precise and strong” Harald Romstad ØSIR

25. 4. Tables • The table text shall stand above the table • The table text shall be written in cursive in the same font as the normal text. • Remember references! • The table text should be so complete that the reader can understand the table without reading anything else • Tables bigger than 4 * 4, should be made as graphs Harald Romstad ØSIR

26. 4.Tabeller Tabell 2 Tabellen viser den relative utviklingen av kostnadene i en bedrift ved null vekst samtidig som en opprettholder statusen på anlegg målt i faste kroner. Videre forutsettes det at investeringene som gjøres har en internrente på 15% knyttet til besparelser (produktivitetsforbedringer). Tabellen viser at dette ikke er tilstrekkelig for en bærekraftig utvikling. Dette skyldes relative prisendringer på produkt og lønn. Harald Romstad ØSIR

27. 5. Figures • Figure text might stand above og beneath the figure. The most common is beneath • The figure text is written in cursive in the same font as the normal text • Remember references • The figure text should be that good that the reader can understand the figure without reading anything else Harald Romstad ØSIR

28. Relativ development wages: a* (1,02)t • The gap to be solved by • Productivity • Increasing volume Product price (0,98)t til (0,995)t time 5. Figures Fig. 3.2 ”The gap” The figure shows the relative development i wages and product prices, given the general external conditions. The development is exponential and the gap will increase more and more rapid. If the plant do not close the gap, it will go bankrupt after some time. Harald Romstad ØSIR

29. 5. Figures Figure 5 “Trade balance and gross product”The figure shows the development in trade balance in percent of gross product in Asia, Europe and USA. Source: Gjerdem 2005 og Ecowin / SSB Asia Euroområdet USA Harald Romstad ØSIR

30. 7. Each chapter • Each chapter shall have an introduction, a main part and a closing • The introduction tells the reader what this is about, how you have structured the chapter and why. You shall also tell the reader the purpose (aim) by this chapter. • The main part is the body, and remember this is the part that I often do not read • The closing shall be an answer on the introduction and shall contain a short conclusion of the chapter. • I read the introduction on closing before I decide to read the main part Harald Romstad ØSIR

31. 8. General design • Font: Times New Roman • Font size: punkt 12 • Line space: 1 (½) • Remember page number (automatic) • Margin: standard 2, 5 cm (right/left) • Make up your mind, one design and than go through with it! Harald Romstad ØSIR