Major Characteristics and Aspects of Traditional China

1. Major Characteristics and Aspects of Traditional China

2. Overview • Thought and Culture • Political Structures and Systems • Society

3. Thought & Culture • (Vohra, pp. 5-10) • Rujia daotong (“The Orthodox Way and Tradition of Confucianism”) – dominant ideology of Chinese society and state since 1st Century BCE • Original teachers: Kong Qiu (“Confucius”) ca. 550-480 BCE Meng Ke (“Mencius”) ca. 370-290 BCE Xun Qing (“Xun zi”) ca. 313-238 BCE

4. Major categories of values in teachings of the original (Classical) masters Ren (仁) Compassion, humaneness, like-mindedness with others Yi (义) Rightmindedness, ethical correctness Li (礼) Propriety, ritualistic rigor in behavior and in relationships Xin (信) Trust and trustworthiness, honesty Jing (敬) Respect, honor Qian (谦) Courtesy, modesty Cheng (诚) Sincerity, completeness of mind Five Cardinal Relationships: Father-son; Sovereign-subject; husband-wife; older brother-younger; friend

5. Peak periods of Influence of Confucian ideology: Han dynasty, late-2nd C BCE – early 3rd C CE) Tang dynasty, 7th through 9th C CE Song dynasty, 11-early 13th C CE Ming dynasty, 14th – 17th C CE The Latter Evolution of Confucian Philosophy: Song and Ming dynasties’ “Neo-Confucianism”: Daoxue (Moral concept of “natural law”) Lixue (Rationalism: gewuzhizhiqionglijinxing:Study things to attain knowledge, pursue inherent principles and reach the fullness of the potential of human nature) Xinxue (The human mind is the only real consciousness) Xin-Li xue (The Mind = Rational Principle; Rational Principle = Consciousness) Zhixingheyi (Unity of Thought and Action)

6. What does “Confucianism” mean? It is both Philosophy and Orthodoxy – the underpinning of a concept of a rigid universal social and state order The political unity of Qin & Han (3rd C BCE) – the model of state ever since The establishment of Imperial order The creation of “syncretic Confucianism” by absorbing influences of other schools The sustained support of auxiliary social systems (govt. endorsement, bureaucracy, education, examination system – ladder of success) The extension of Confucian cultural influence and the expansion of the Chinese empire

7. Other cultural influences Philosophical traditions: Daoism, Me-ism, Legalism, ancient Scientism Assimilation under the Han Religions: Religious Daoism, regional and local beliefs and religious practices Buddhism (intro. to China in 1st C CE; processes of Sinicization; becomes one of the major pillars of cultural connection between China – including the Chinese state – and the rest of Asia; unquestionably the most populous religious system in China, if not in Asia; Buddhism’s varieties – not a monolithic system of belief in China)

8. Relationship between Confucian orthodoxy and other influences: Fairly peaceful coexistence due to the “division of spheres” over the centuries (contrast with situation in Europe) – Projection: A very different set of conditions in terms of “inter-system” and “inter-cultural” relations comes into play when 19th evangelical Christianity, supported by the power of Western states, is introduced into the equation in the “modern era.” (In other words, the ways in which Christianity sought to impact China in the 19th century was nothing like the ways in which other non-indigenous religions, such as Buddhism, had done in the past. Thus the responses were also very different.)

9. Significance of understanding the tradition of Confucianism for our comprehension of Modern China Orthodoxy: tremendous and deep influence on Chinese society, values, and state Enduring tradition but also target of change Manchu monarchy adopted and adapted itself to the Confucian order and its teachings – hence in the modern period rebellion against the Manchu imperial system also involved to some degree rebellion vs. Confucianism Confucianism not limited to China The resilience of Confucianism – particularly philosophy

10. Political Structures & Systems • (Vohra, pp. 2-3; 7; 10-11; 12-14) • Monarchies and dynasties • Bureaucracy: The dominant influence of a bureaucratic govt. (officials chosen for “merit”- however that maybe defined) vs. a nobility-dominated govt. (blood = access to political authority) has been a characteristic of MOST (not all) of trad. Chinese political history Bureaucracy not = democracy; bur. existed UNDER monarchy • The “Mandate of Heaven” concept applied to the legitimation of imperial rule and dynastic prolongation (compare w/ “Divine Right of Kings” in Western tradition of monarchical absolutism)

11. Political Systems cont’d • Central and regional/local governance: A hierarchical pyramid of govt. order and govt. appointments • “Grass-roots self governance”: The baojia system: Subject populations expected to have a role in monitoring themselves and to maintain order at the grassroots level; but this does not mean autonomy or the devolution (or even delegation) of political authority to grassroots level • Constant and repeated tension between Central govt. (centralism) and the politics and power of the regions: Persistent regionalism not only a social-economic phenomenon but a profoundly political one as well; several times resulted in division

12. Ethnic co-existence and contestation: “The Chinese” is a modern social and political “construction.” “China” traditionally (and now) is a multiethnic and multicultural entity, fraught with issues of co-existence and contestation. (Periods of non-Han rule of all or parts of China) Northern dynasties 386-581 CE Liao 907-1125 Jin 1115-1234 Mongol/Yuan 1206-1368 Manchu/Qing 1644-1911 (Total: 933 in 2231 yrs. = 42%) (Major ethnicities) Han, Meng (Mongol), Hui, Uighur, Zang (Tibetan), Man (Manchu), Yue, Zhuang, Bai, Yue (Viet), Dai (Thai), Min

13. Society • Hierarchies: Classes Gentry (two intertwined types: govt & landed) peasant farmers (the vast majority; broadly differentiated by economic prosperity levels/classes within the category) industrial workers, artisans, and the commercial class: Culturally demeaned but real historical growth; Commercial economies mostly medium and small; industry run the gamut from peasant household-based “cottage industries” to large scale productivity industries (e.g., mining.) Limited mechanization until late-19th C • Patriarchy dominant throughout traditional Chinese (esp. Han) society. Reinforced by “neo-Confucian” ethics since 12th C

14. Society cont’d • Widely divergent regional rates of development: influenced by many factors besides geography • Core vs. peripheral • Hinterland vs. coast • North vs. South • Urban vs. rural • Ethnic divisions • Trade and the world: Trad. China was not an isolated country re. trade and communications; “Enclosed China” in need of being “opened up” forcefully is a persistent, convenient myth for rationalizing European expansion/aggression; even the “kernel of truth” behind the myth is a short-sighted “reality.” (Evidence: The significance of the “Maritime Silk Road” from 10th -18th C; the vast amount of Chinese goods in Europe in 17th and 18th C.)