The genesis of calculative practices in higher education: Points systems

1. The genesis of calculative practices in higher education: Points systems Keith Dixon, University of Canterbury

2. Accountingus Curriculorum* Name: Cook, C. H. H. (8900670) • Dr ECON135 13 Bal c/f 36 . 49 • Cr AFIS234 15 ECON135 13 PHYS358 23 . 49 Bal b/f 36 *Bekhradnia (2004), Trowler (1998), and Wellman and Ehrlich (2003) associate “Points Systems” with “Curricular Accounting”

3. Accountancy, Finance and Information Systems Department of Accountancy Finance and Information Systems AFIS 102 Accounting and Financial Information 18 points0.1500 EFTS An introduction to business information; financial reports; emerging issues in reporting; cost/volume/profit analysis, cost flows, budgeting; time value of money, project evaluation and cost of capital. R: AFIS 101, AFIS 111, AFIS 122, AFIS 132, AFIS 188. AFIS102-08S1 (C) Semester 1 AFIS102-08S2 (C) Semester 2 Source 2008 on-line Calendar. See also AFIS102 on the UC CSQ webpages

4. Source 1879 Canterbury College Calendar.

5. Why no Points System 1873 to 1973+ • Canterbury College small and intimate • Trust in governance by great and good • Entrustment of curriculum to “Oxbridge” professors • Curriculum provision and choice not extensive • Credit transfer limited and definitive • Ditto New Zealand University • University-College counterbalance • Oversight of standards and activities via professorial clan, supported by institutional bureaucracy • Points technology unknown • Irrelevant accounting knowledge and no computing power

6. Canterbury College small and intimate

7. Canterbury College small and intimate Total staff in the four NZU affiliated colleges in 1910 = 82; in 1950 = 600+ (6)

8. Entrustment of curriculum to “Oxbridge” professors Significant proportion of NZU examiners were Oxbridge or other British based up to 1949

9. Canterbury College small and intimate; • Curriculum provision and choice not extensive

10. Canterbury College and UNZ small and intimate • Curriculum provision and choice not extensive Graph does not reflect endorsements, specialisations, majors

11. Credit transfer limited Dublin, Queens, Royal St. Andrews, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen Yale, Toronto Oxbridge, Durham, Birmingham, London, Manchester Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide A big small world of university institutions within the Dominion Empire, with institution to institution equivalence and concessions – ad eundem gradum

12. Credit transfer an important aspect of increasingly global market in qualifications, study programmes and credit Can/USA – Atlantic – UK/EU Asia WCNA C&LA Africa Pacific Australia LA KiwiqualsNew Zealand Qualifications Authority NZ Committee on University Academic Programmes

13. Canterbury College small and intimate • Oversight of standards and activities via professorial clan, supported by institutional bureaucracy

14. From Clan to Market NPM, Purchaser-provider splits, EFTS funding system, financial crisis, one-line College budgets, massification of higher education Brown, Sale, Cook, Hight, Wall, Shelley, Brownlie et al. Bourn and Ezzamel (1986) FAM

15. c. 1875 Canterbury College – NZU Qualifications • Bachelor degree (Pass) [B.A.]: • Latin (until 1911) and Maths (until 1917), plus choice of 3 out of 9 Subjects • Three year’s “keeping terms” and pass “annual college exams” in subjects • Pass NZU exams after two years and three years • Bachelor degree with Honours [B.A. Hons.]: • Choice of 1 or more of 6 Subjects • One year’s “keeping terms” in year after B.A. • Pass NZU exams • Master degree [M.A.] • Study 1 or more of 6 Subjects, then pass NZU exams, or • Apply on strength of B.A. Hons (and pay 5 guineas?). Sources: 1873 Calendar NZU and 1879 Calendar CC, and Gardner et al. (1973)

16. Bachelor Degree(s) 1870 >>> 1873 degree of low standard, more akin to matriculation than to bachelor, and so upped c. 1875 to become a general degree, more Scottish than English, aimed at training next generation of colony teachers – Gardner et al. (1973) 1925 degree(s) again attracted criticism for being of a lower standard than “overseas” (meaning Britain and its Dominions), an opinion backed by Ernest Rutherford, then in Canada and England (Gardner et al., 1973). Gardner, W. J., Beardsley, E. T. and Carter, T. E. (1973) A history of the University of Canterbury 1873-1973. Christchurch: University of Canterbury.

17. Subjects From initial offerings, these extended thus: • Horizontally – more content, requiring a similar foundation and a similar application of intellect • Vertically – content requiring higher application of intellect, demarcated by • Pass, Honours • Pass, Advanced, Honours; Junior, Senior, Honours • First year, Second year, Third year, Fourth year; Honours/Masters • Stage I, Stage II, Stage III , Honours/Masters (post 1930) • 100-level, 200-level, . . . . 700-level (post 1980)

18. Subjects and Levels in Degree Regulations I • 1870s (B.A.): • Latin and Maths (4 exam papers), plus choice of 3 (6 exam papers) (later 4 subjects and 8 exams) out of 9+ Subjects. • 1910 (B.Com.) • Six lower branch subjects (10 exam papers) and two year’s keeping terms; followed by four higher branch subjects (6 exams). • 1920 (B.Com.) • Nine compulsory subjects (11 exam papers), along with 5 subjects from short choice, with only a few restrictions on order of sitting exams, except that at least 3 must be passed at any sitting. • 1930 (B.Com.) • Seven compulsory subjects (10 exams), plus 2 out of 8 subjects in Group II, plus the 5 subjects in either Group A, B or C in Group III, with few restrictions on the order in which exams should be sat, except that at least 2 must be passed at any sitting.

19. Subjects and Levels in Degree Regulations II • 1950 (B.Com.) • Nine compulsory Stage I and Stage II subjects; and 3 Stage III subjects, from a limited choice • 1960 (B.Com.) • Twelve Units (i.e. one year’s work in a subject)* in two groups, Group I of which was compulsory with 6 Stage I and 3 Stage II Units; and choice of subdivisions (i) or (ii) of 3 Stage III Units each from Group II • 1970 (B.Com.) • Nine Units (with two or three exam papers), 5 of which were compulsory, and the rest were chosen according to list of choices. * Units first pushed by Prof Arnold Wall in 1920s as part of trying to raise standards.

20. Subjects and Levels in Degree Regulations III • 1980 and 1990 (B.Com.) • Comprised courses chosen from a schedule (of 6- and 12-point papers) and otherwise totalling at least 108 points, including at least 36 points above Stage I of which 12 points must be Stage III in a single subject. Provided that a pre-1975 Unit is 12 points - no other definition of a “point”. • Courses not on schedule included 4-, 8- and 24-point courses. Where applicable, courses shown with prereqs and restrictions. Alpha numeric course codes now in use, with 5th character indicating level of course (i.e. 100-, 200-, 300-level). • Courses in Calendar above Stage III (i.e. post grad courses) did not have a points value. • 2000 (B.Com.) • Comprised courses chosen from a schedule (of 3-, 6- and 12-point papers) and otherwise totalling at least 102 points, including at least 48 points above Stage I of which 12 must be Stage III in a single subject. • Courses listed in Calendar with lecture and lab or tut hours specified but these were not proportionate to points.

21. Subjects and Levels in Degree Regulations IV • 2008 (B.Com.) • Comprises courses with a total value of at least 360 points, chosen from a schedule (at least 254 points) and otherwise, including at least 216 points above 100-level, of which 84+ must be at 300-level, of which 56+ points must be in a single subject. • Courses in schedule range among 11, 14, 18, 22, 28 points. [NB. 28 = 84 ÷ 3; 22 = (216 – 84) ÷ 6; 18 = (360 – 216) ÷ 8] • No definition of a “point” • No specification of lecture and other contact hours. • Courses in Calendar above 300-level (i.e. post grad courses) do not have a points value. • All courses have an EFTSs value, which in case of those with a points value = no. of points ÷ 120 rounded to 4 decimal places • NB increase in 300- and 200-level study compared with 2000(5).

22. Changing Official Shape of Bachelor Degree 1870-74 By 1920 By 1990 2008

23. Bachelor Degree 2008

24. THE NEW ZEALAND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK Link here to NZQA source

25. Levels • OU Undergraduate Levels Framework • Kiwiquals NZ equivalent

27. Let’s now get to the Point • Points are measures within Levels, as above (NB learning outcomes differ from level to level)

28. Let’s now get to the Point • Points reflect the time a typical learner takes to cover the learning: 1 point = 10 hours' notional learning time.

29. Let’s now get to the Point • The points value for a course is evaluated from how long it would typically take people to achieve the stated outcomes in the context specified. Notional learning hours include • direct contact time with teachers and trainers ('directed learning') • time spent in studying and doing assignments etc ('self-directed' or 'on-task' learning) • time spent in assessment.

30. Let’s now get to the Point • Points are measures within Levels , as above (NB learning outcomes differ from level to level) • Points reflect the time a typical learner takes to cover the learning: 1 point = 10 hours' notional learning time. • The points value for a course is evaluated from how long it would typically take people to achieve the stated outcomes in the context specified. Notional learning hours include • direct contact time with teachers and trainers ('directed learning') • time spent in studying and doing assignments etc ('self-directed' or 'on-task' learning) • time spent in assessment.

31. Let’s now get to the Point • Kiwiquals definition • Recognised by NZVCC Committee on University Academic Programmes (CUAP) as a common system of credit • For government funding purposes, a full-time single year programme translates into 120 points • Incorporated in Establishment of Credit Parity Across Courses, a document issued by Jan Cameron, AVC (Academic) on 8 June 2008 • A NZ point has most characteristics of a UK credit accumulation and transfer system(s) point (see Bekhradnia (2004))

32. How does this technology compare with “sliced bread”? A unimane view on points as expressions of notional learning hours: “A “total workload” model is unattainable. We are happy for there to be information on the objective aspects of workload e.g. lectures, tutorials, labs etc. Any attempt to set out a “total workload”, including “revision” and independent study, is at best nebulous and at worst fatuous. There may need to be more flexibility in contact hours, particularly with respect to those courses which are more “engineering/science like”, i.e. courses which traditionally have high contact hours, particularly with laboratories etc, compared with those courses which are more “arts like”, where students traditionally have fewer contact hours, but do more independent study.” – written in response to UC’s Student Workload policy - DRAFT 2005

33. Source: Sastry and Bekhradnia (2007) – reflects how student workloads in English universities differ despite several years or so of CATS points systems

34. “Europe” – another NZ look-alike • European Qualifications Framework (EQF) • Aim: To promote lifelong learning and mobility by increasing the mutual recognition of qualifications across national borders • Composition A set of common reference points • referring to learning outcomes and levels of competences related to a qualification obtained at national level • located in a hierarchy of 8 levels • Unit of Currency ECTS – derived from European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System

35. EQF Level 8 Qualification EQF Level 7 Qualification EQF Level 6 Qualification EQF Level 5 Qualification EQF Level 4 Qualification EQF Level 3 Qualification Qualification EQF Level 2 EQF Level 1 Country A Country B

36. ECTSa la Wikipedia • One academic year corresponds to 60 ECTS-credits that are equivalent to 1500-1800 hours of study • So, 1 ECTS = 25-30 notional learning hours • But 1 ECTS = 2 CATS in UK! (and 2 NZ points!) • Bologna agreement now in “progress”! (see Bekhradnia (2004)) • Like NZ, ECTS are “student-centred”

37. Student Hour (or Credit Hour)a la Wikipedia And now for something completely different • This U.S.A. system is “teacher-contact oriented” a Student Hour is the equivalent of one hour (50 minutes) of lecture time for a single student per week over the course of a semester, usually 14 to 16 weeks • Derives from Carnegie Unit, used in secondary schools • Dates back at least a century • The credit hour is a universal translator that allows complicated institutions to translate disparate activities into a common language. It contributes to bad habits within the academy, particularly in relation to goals and assessment of student learning. Further, ways need to be sought to correct for the inequities in the student credithour system – Wellman and Ehrlich (2003). • Translation to NZ – over to you

38. Some sources to consult • Bekhradnia, B. (2004). Credit accumulation and transfer, and the Bologna process: an overview. Higher Education Policy Institute. http://www.hepi.ac.uk/downloads/13CATFullReport.pdf • Greatorex, J. (2003). Developing and applying level descriptors. Westminster Studies in Education, 26(2), 125-133. • Keevy, J. A. (2005). A Foucauldian critique of the development and implementation of the South African National Qualifications Framework. Unpublished thesis. http://etd.unisa.ac.za/ETD-db/ETD-desc/describe?urn=etd-05312006-151405 • Sastry, T. and Bekhradnia, B. (2007). The academic experience of students in English universities. Higher Education Policy Institute. http://www.hepi.ac.uk/downloads/33TheacademicexperienceofstudentsinEnglishuniversities2007.pdf • Trowler, P. (1998) What managerialists forget: Higher education credit frameworks and managerialist ideology. International Studies in Sociology of Education 8, 91-110. • Wellman, J.V. and Ehrlich, T. (2003) How the student credit hour shapes higher education: The tie that binds: New directions for higher education. New Directions for Higher Education Whole issue. • Young, M. (2008). Towards a European qualifications framework: some cautionary observations. Journal of European Industrial Training, 32 (2/3), 127-137.

39. The slides that follow contain definitions taken from theGlossaryon UC’s Courses, Subjects and Qualifications web pages

40. Calendar • The official published record of the current regulations of the University. Includes important information on degree, diploma and certificate regulations. The Calendar can be viewed in the Central Library, at Level 1 of the Registry, in public libraries, on the Publications website and can be purchased from the University Book Shop.

41. Course (sometimes called a paper) • Courses are the building blocks of degrees and other qualifications. Each course has a credit point value which counts towards your degree. Each subject offers a range of courses. You must complete a certain number of points at 100-level (first year courses) before you can progress to 200-level courses in that subject and so on. • Courses either run for the whole year (February–November) or half a year (one semester) or over summer (November–February) and consist of lectures, assessment (tests, essays, reports etc) and tutorials or laboratories.

42. Levels • The courses which you will usually study in your first year are called 100-level courses, e.g., SPAN 101 is the code for a first-year Spanish course. Courses at 200-level begin with a ‘2', e.g., SPAN 201 is the code for a 200-level Spanish course, and 300-level courses begin with a ‘3', e.g., SPAN 301.

43. Points • Each course has a credit point value that reflects the workload for the course. Under the new system introduced in 2006, typical courses at 100-level are worth 18 points, courses at 200-level are worth 22 points and courses at 300-level are worth 28 points. If you pass the course, all the points for that course are credited to your degree. If you fail, none of the points are credited. • Each qualification has regulations which state the required total number of points required for completion and the points requirements at each level. UC degrees are made up of 120 points per year or 360 points for a three-year degree and 480 points for a four-year degree. Students should ensure they are fully aware of the points requirements for their degree and choose their courses accordingly.

44. Cross-crediting/transfer of credit • If you have studied at another university or at a polytechnic, or if you have points from university courses in another discipline, some of those points may be able to be counted towards your degree. If you would like more information on cross-crediting and transfer of credit contact an on-campus Student Advisor in the relevant College or School.

45. EFTS • The workload of a course is specified by its EFTS (Equivalent Full-Time Student) value. From 2006 onwards, course EFTS are directly related to course credit points so either may be used as a guide when planning your workload. The StudyLink definition of a full-time workload is a minimum of 0.8 EFTS (96 points). A workload of 0.4 EFTS in first or second semester also qualifies as a full-time workload for students undertaking part year study.

46. Grade Point Average • A system of recording academic achievement based on an average which is calculated by multiplying each grade’s value by the course’s weight to achieve a sum, which is then divided by the sum of the course weightings. [see web page for example calculation]

47. Major • Your major is the subject you decide to study in-depth or specialise in within a flexible degree. In most cases for the BA, BCom and BSc this means you take at least 56 points at 300-level in this subject. A double major is when you take 56 points in each of two subjects at 300-level. In most subjects you will also need to complete other requirements, such as completing a certain number of points above 100-level – for more details check the Enrolment Handbook.

48. Subject • A subject is a particular area of study that the university offers courses in, e.g., English, French, Mathematics or Geology. You will study more than one subject for your degree. • While you can study many subjects at 100-level, some subjects, including Biochemistry, Electronics and Soil Science begin at 200-level and require passes in certain courses at 100-level before you can take them.

49. Supervisor of Studies • The Head of Department or School (or an approved member of the academic staff) from within the Department/School which teaches the subject you have chosen as your main area of study, commonly known as your major.

50. Prerequisites, co-requisites and restrictions • A prerequisite is a course that you must pass before you can do another, usually more advanced, course. For example, if BIOL 112 is a prerequisite for BIOL 210 you must pass BIOL 112 before you can enrol in BIOL 210. A co-requisite means that the course must be taken at the same time as another course. You cannot credit a course towards your degree if you have already completed a course which is restricted against that course, i.e., you cannot do both courses. • It's important to research these thoroughly when planning your course of study, so that you take the right prerequisite courses at 100-level to get into the courses you want to at 200-level and so on. Information on prerequisites, co-requisites and restrictions can be found in the Enrolment Handbook and on the Courses, Subjects and Qualifications website.