Western Civilization II HIS-102

1. Western Civilization IIHIS-102 UNIT 1 – The Reformation

2. Europe at 1500 • Rebounding from the terrible 14th century • Population was starting to increase into pre-plague levels • The economy was expanding, including trade and colonialism • Stronger monarchs • National monarchies created in England, France, Spain, and Poland • Had secure holds on their thrones • Catholic church had survived upheavals by radical groups • Suppression of heresy • Included the Lollards in England and the Hussites in Bohemia • Popular devotion had increased • Then comes the Protestant Reformation

3. The Reformation • Reformation started as a movement to reform the Catholic Church • Backlash • Broke the monopoly of the Catholic Church • Rise of Protestantism • Bloody wars that tore Europe apart for over a century • Church was in desperate need of reform • The clergy were uneducated and often corrupt • The popes were unable to provide spiritual leadership • There was a rise of popular religion

4. Europe (c. 1519)

5. The Holy Roman Empire • The Reformation begins in Saxony • This was part of the Holy Roman Empire • Holy Roman Empire • Conglomeration of small states under the control of the Holy Roman Emperor • Very unlikely place for the Reformation to have started • It was not a unified country • Renaissance had affected Germans the least and they remained very religious • At the same time, they believed that the were the greatest victims of Church abuses

6. The Holy Roman Empire • Charles V (1519-1558) • Was elected HRE on June 28, 1519 at the age of 19 • Represented the peak of Habsburg power • Had control of a vast empire when he took the position • Spain (and its overseas empire) • Spanish Netherlands (aka the Low Countries) • Lands in Austria and Hungary • Kingdoms of Naples and Sardina, and Bohemia • He wanted full control over his lands • Included unifying it under one faith: Catholicism

7. Lands Controlled by the House of Habsburg in 1556

8. Martin Luther • (1483-1546)

9. Martin Luther (1483-1546) • Martin Luther (1483-1546) • He was born in Saxony • Under pressure from his parents, Luther attended the University of Erfurt to study law • “Spiritual Awakening” (1505) • Occurred on his way home from school • Joined the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt soon after • Monastic Years • Reflected on how he was to achieve his own salvation • He constantly prayed, fasted, and went on pilgrimages • Nothing he did was able to give him the peace he sought after

10. Martin Luther (1483-1546) • The problem of the justice of God • How could God issue commands man could not obey? • If you did not obey, you were doomed to eternal damnation • Path to salvation • Catholic church believed salvation was through both good deeds and faith • Luther did not believe any person could do enough good works to be saved • Turn to academia • His superior, Johann von Staupitz, told Luther that he should try an academic career • Became a professor of theology and the Bible at the University of Wittenberg

11. Martin Luther (1483-1546) • “Tower Experience” (1513) • Luther came across the passage “the just shall live by faith alone” in St. Paul’s Letter to the Romans (1:17) • “Justification” meant God turning a sinner into a righteous person eligible for salvation • Those who are saved are done so through faith only • This was a huge revelation for Luther • God’s justice does not depend on “good works” and religious ceremonies • Humans are saved by grace alone • This became known as “justification by faith alone”

12. Martin Luther (1483-1546) • Salvation and the Catholic church • The church (sacraments) and the believer (piety and charity) could affect salvation • The church “quantified” the process of salvation • The “Treasury of Merits” • The indulgence • Remission of the penitential obligations imposed by priests • Indulgences earned by demanding spiritual exercises (eleventh and twelfth centuries) • Indulgences granted with a monetary payment • Indulgences seen by many as just another form of simony • Namely, selling grace in return for cash

13. Albert of Hohenzollern • (1490-1545)

14. Albert of Hohenzollern (1490-1545) • Albert of Hohenzollern (1490-1545) • Was the archbishop of Magdeburg and the administrator of the diocese of Halberstadt • Received these jobs when he was only 23 years old at the time • In 1514, Albert purchased the Archbishopric of Mainz • Had to take out a loan of 21,000 ducats (~ $1 million in 2010) • As this was a significant amount, he had to come to an agreement with Pope Leo X • The Deal • Albert would be given permission to sell indulgences • Half of his income would be sent to Rome to help pay the cost of the building of St. Peter’s Basilica • The other half would go to paying off his loans

15. Albert of Hohenzollern (1490-1545) • Johann Tetzel (1465-1519) • Dominican monk hired by Albert to sell indulgences throughout northern Germany • His slogan: “as soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs” • Luther is very upset about this • Believed people were saved by faith, not good deeds or by buying indulgences • “Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences” (1517) • Attached to a letter to Albert on October 31, 1517 • Luther condemned him for his sale of indulgences

16. The 95 Theses • Luther then nailed a copy of the “Disputation” to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg that same day • He did not believe he was breaking any church laws • They were not direct attacks against the church • It was written in Latin with the intention of promoting scholarly debates • The Theses were incredibly popular • Sales of indulgences dropped dramatically in 1518 • Albert forwarded a copy of it to the papacy • Pope Leo X actually dismissed Luther as a “drunken German” in 1518

17. The 95 Theses • Examples: • 82. To wit: -- "Why does not the pope empty purgatory, for the sake of holy love and of the dire need of the souls that are there, if he redeems an infinite number of souls for the sake of miserable money with which to build a Church? The former reasons would be most just; the latter is most trivial.“ • 86. Again: -- "Why does not the pope, whose wealth is today greater than the riches of the richest, build just this one church of St. Peter with his own money, rather than with the money of poor believers?"

18. Luther nailing the 95 Theses to the church door

19. Break With the Church • Leipzig Disputation (June 27-July 4, 1519) • A theological debate was held in Leipzig • In arguing about papal supremacy, Luther said that the pope and all clerics were fallible • Instead of relying on the pope as the highest spiritual authority, one should look to the Scripture for truth • In 1520, Luther started to break from the church • Published a series of pamphlets putting forth his ideas • Main ideas • Justification by faith alone • The “priesthood of all believers” • The primacy of Scripture

20. Break With the Church • Another key point was that if it is not in the Bible, it should not be followed • Denied transubstantiation and promoted consubstantiation • The dissolution of all monasteries and convents • Reduced the number of sacraments from seven to two (baptism and the Eucharist) • End of the entire ecclesiastical hierarchy of popes and bishops • Substituting German for Latin in church services • He also argued that the clergy should marry since while “virginity was good, marriage is better, and freedom of choice is best”

21. Break With the Church • Why was Luther so successful? • The role of the printing press in spreading Luther’s message • Luther’s defiance touched off a national religious revolt against the papacy • Popes bribed the cardinals to gain the papacy • Moral corruption • Popes waged war to gain territory • There were no agreements (concordats) between pope and German emperor • Princes complained that taxes were too high • Many German princes sided with Luther as a way to attack Roman influence and corruption

22. Break With the Church • Other factors: • Peasants hoped Lutheranism would free them from the exactions of their lords • Towns and princes were trying to consolidate their political independence • Nationalist demands for liberation from foreign popes • From reforming the church to a frontal assault on the church • On January 3, 1521, the pope issued the official decree of excommunication • This stated that Luther was officially a heretic • Frederick the Wise of Saxony intervened on Luther’s behalf • He requested a fair hearing for Luther in front of the Imperial Diet

23. Luther at the Diet of Worms

24. Diet of Worms • Diet at the city of Worms (April 17-8, 1521) • Charles V was in attendance • Many expected Luther to recant his writings in order to avoid persecution • Luther was asked to recant the “heresies” in his works • “Since then Your Majesty and your lordships desire a simple replay, I will answer without horns and without teeth. Unless I am convicted by Scripture and plain reason—I do not accept the authority of popes and councils, for they have contradicted each other—my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe. Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise. God help me. Amen.”

25. Diet of Worms • Edict of Worms of 1521 (May 8, 1521) • Issued by Charles V • It reaffirmed Luther’s position as a heretic and political outlaw • It stated that all of Luther’s writing were to be burned • Luther had left Worms by this point • Kidnapping • Frederick the Wise orchestrated the kidnapping of Luther • Luther spent over a year in hiding under his protection at the castle of the Wartburg • Luther spent his time in hiding working on building a new reformed church

26. Wartburg Castle

27. Support of the German Princes • Key to the survival of Lutheranism lay in the support of the German princes and free cities • No matter how popular it was, the movement could easily be crushed • Some rulers were effective at limiting the power of the Catholic Church • They sought to control appointments to church offices and restrict flow of money to Rome • Statute of Praemunire (1353) gave the English courts supremacy over papal courts • In 1487, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain were granted the Spanish Inquisition • Concordat of Bologna (1516) gave the French king the right to choose bishops and abbots

28. Support of the German Princes • German princes did not have nearly as much power • Did not have large enough armies to assert their positions • Were unable to gain concessions from the church • Lutheranism was an attractive option • There was no church hierarchy so there were no church officials to challenge their authority • This gave the princes more power than they ever had before • Luther used this to his advantage • He encouraged the princes to confiscate church lands and its wealth as a way of gaining their support • He also got them involved in organizing and guiding the new Lutheran churches

29. Support of the German Princes • However, the princes could not just embrace Lutheranism • They had to wait to see what Charles V would first • If Charles took notice, he would send in troops from all over Europe to crush the movement • Charles was preoccupied with more pressing matters • He was involved in one war with France and another one with the Ottoman Turks • Hoped Pope Clement VII would take care of the Protestant threat in the Holy Roman Empire • Clement was more fearful of Charles’ growing power in Italy so he joined the French in against Charles

30. Support of the German Princes • Clearly, Charles was unwilling to defend Catholicism in the Empire • Because of this, many princes joined the Lutheran movement • Some joined for pious reasons • Others joined for economic and political ones • Many free cities also converted to Lutheranism • They too could now control the politics of their cities without the interference of bishops or other church officials • This meant that Lutheranism was able to flourish in those areas

31. Swiss Confederation

32. Reformation in Switzerland • The Swiss still were part of the Holy Roman Empire • In 1499, they were able to defeat Emperor Maximilian and were able to gain some autonomy • The Swiss Confederation • Consisted of six forest (rural) cantons and seven urban (city) cantons • No one person had control over Switzerland • The members of the cantons decided what they wanted • The Swiss had strong loyalties to their local governments • Deeply resented the papacy getting involved in Swiss affairs • The Protestant movement came to Switzerland in 1520

33. Ulrich Zwingli • (1484-1531)

34. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) • Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) • Graduated from the University of Basel with a Master’s Degree in Divinity • Was exposed to the writings of the northern Humanists • Appointment as People’s Priest (December 11, 1518) • This was at the Great Minster in the city of Zürich • The position gave him little income or influence but gave him many opportunities to preach to the public • On January 1, 1519, Zwingli gave his first sermon • As part of it, he read from a Greek Bible and gave his own interpretation of it • His speech was entirely based on the scriptures • This had a sensational impact on the attendees

35. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) • With this popularity, he continued on with similar sermons • Bubonic plague hit Zürich in August 1519 • Zwingli tended to the sick • He eventually caught the plague himself but survived • This had a huge impact on Zwingli’s teachings • He became more serious in his reforms of the church • It was also at this time that he secretly broke away from the Roman Church

36. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) • Zwingli’s theology was similar to Luther • Believed that Catholic theology and practice conflicted with the Gospels • Disagreed with many of the practices of the Church including fasting, pilgrimages, monastic vows, celibacy, penance, and purgatory • Condemned religious images and hierarchical authority • Disagreed with Luther about the Lord’s Supper • Luther believed that “this is my body” meant that Christ’s blood and body were present “in, with and under” the wine and bread • Zwingli believed it represented Christ’s blood and body • This prevented any cooperation between the two

37. John of Leiden • (c.1509-1536)

38. Anabaptists • Anabaptists • “Anabaptism” means “rebaptism” • Radical reformers in Switzerland and northern Germany • Were originally part of Zwingli’s movement in Zürich but were deemed too radical • Their main ideas included: • Adult baptism instead of infant baptism • Men and women are not born into any church but join one • The belief that anyone could be a priest and therefore the community should elect its leaders • True pacifists • Feared by both Catholics and Protestants

39. Anabaptist • Settled in Münster in the 1530s • First location where they were allowed to remain • Attracted more Anabaptists to the city • They wanted to change the city to a theocracy • On January 5, 1534, they took full control of the city • One of the leaders, John of Leiden, took the title of “King of the New Temple” • Reforms were instituted throughout the city • Anabaptist religious practices became mandatory • Private property was abolished • Common ownership was introduced • Polygamy was allowed

40. Anabaptists • Catholic troops lay siege to the city in spring 1535 • Led by the Bishop of Münster • On June 24, 1535, they were able to successfully retake the city • John of Leiden and two of his lieutenants were tortured to death • Their bodies were pulled apart with red-hot pokers and they were killed with a dagger through the heart • Their bodies were then put in cages, which hung from the steeple of St. Lambert's Church, to rot and were eventually removed 50 years later • Remaining Anabaptist groups were heavily persecuted throughout Europe

41. Execution of the Anabaptist leaders

42. Cages at St. Lambert’s Church

43. John Calvin • (1509-1564)

44. John Calvin (1509-1564) • John Calvin (1509-1564) • Born in Picardie, France • From an early age he was expected to enter the church • He received an MA in theology from the University of Paris • When his father fell out of favor with his church friends, he insisted Calvin to go into law so instead • Calvin received his law degree from the University of Orleans • When his father died in 1531, Calvin returned to theology and moved back to Paris • While there, he became involved in a reform movement that was based upon Humanism

45. John Calvin (1509-1564) • France at this time was not a safe place for Protestants • Calvin spent a few years traveling around Europe • Calvin’s theology • Laid out in his Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) • Believed in the omnipotence of God • Because of Adam’s sin, all men were born sinners and were doomed to a life of sin • Nothing that we do on earth affects where we end up in the afterlife • God predestines some humans for salvation (the Elect) • Called for an active life of piety and morality • Calvin was strongly influenced by St. Augustine

46. John Calvin (1509-1564) • In 1541, Calvin was given the opportunity to create a theocracy in Geneva • He had already been to the city in 1536 but was kicked out after his theology was deemed too radical • Calvin’s theocracy • Rejected the Catholic church hierarchy and the pope • Replaced them with assemblies of ministers and electors • The main authority was the Consistory • Main job was approving religious law • Also supervised all public and private morality in the city • “Four bare walls and a sermon”

47. John Calvin (1509-1564) • Calvin’s theocracy was incredibly successful • Many Protestants throughout Europe were influenced by him • John Knox (c. 1513–1572) started his reform movement in Scotland based on Calvinism (Presbyterians) • Dutch Reformed Church in Holland • Puritans in England • Huguenots in France

48. Henry VIII • (1491-1547)

49. Reformation in England • Reformation in England was very different than the rest of Europe • England was not affected by the papacy and church abuses as other countries • Main reason behind it was political rather than religious • It was rooted in Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon • Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536) • Spanish princess, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella • Originally married to Henry’s older brother, Arthur, for five months before he died

50. Catherine of Aragon • (1485-1536)