Chapter Two

1. Chapter Two Egypt and Israel p. 52-91

2. Continuity and Change in Egyptian History • Egyptian society developed slowly • Was inspired by the rhythms of the Nile River • Society’s goal was stability, not change • Any change was slow and cautious

3. Geography: Life on the Nile • The wealth of Egypt was based solely on the Nile River • Very little rain, so the flooding of the Nile was important • The Nile comes the White Nile and Blue Nile, fed by summer monsoons in Ethiopia • Flooding of Nile between July and October, leaving rich alluvial soil which makes for productive land • Nile’s flooding predictable, so Egyptians able to plan with some certainty planning and harvesting of crops

4. The Nile Delta and the Faiyum • The area in which the Nile empties into the Mediterranean Sea is the Nile Delta • The Delta had most of the major centres of Egypt • Lake Moeris is the centre of an oasis known as the Faiyum • Through irrigation, the Faiyum was the third largest area of settlement and agriculture

5. Deserts and Egypt’s Isolation • Egypt is between two inhospitable deserts, the Western Desert and the Eastern Desert • The deserts protected Egypt from invasion, and isolated it from outside influences • Important sources of minerals and building supplies • Copper • Gold • Tin • Alabaster • Limestone • Amethyst • Natron

6. The Mediterranean • Egypt’s outlet for trade • Large trade network established and allowed Egypt to get a wide range of goods • Also an exchange of cultures – for example, art and architecture of the Greeks

7. The Rise of the Nation of Egypt • Unified by King Menes about 3100 BCE • Egyptian history divided into three eras • Old Kingdom • 2686 BCE – 2150 BCE • Middle Kingdom • 2050 BCE – 1700 BCE • New Kingdom (Golden Age) • 1550 BCE – 1070 BCE

8. The Old Kingdom • Prior to 3100 BCE, Egypt was a collection of unorganized societies • Lower Egypt (the Nile Delta) was symbolized by the red crown • Upper Egypt was symbolized by the white crown • King Menes united the two kingdoms in 3100 BCE • The King was the ruler of all of Egypt and was considered a god

9. The Old Kingdom continued • By the Fourth Dynasty (the fourth family to rule Egypt), there was trade with much of the Mediterranean • Copper in the Sinai • Timber from Syria • Wine and oil from Crete • Potter’s wheel from Mesopotamia • Greatest symbols of the Old Kingdom are the Pyramids of Giza • Built by Khufu, Khafre, and Menkure between 2600 and 2500 BCE

10. Imhotep: an Egyptian Genius • Considered a genius who lived during the Third Dynasty (2686 BCE-2613 BCE) • His contributions were so great that he was essentially deified • Right hand of the Pharaoh Djoser • First non-royal whose life has been recorded and passed on through history • Chancellor of the King of Lower Egypt, the first after the King of Upper Egypt, administrator of the great palace, hereditary lord, the High Priest of Heliopolis, Imhotep the builder, the sculptor, and the maker of stone vases • Founder of Egyptian medicine • Architect who designed and supervised the construction of the world’s first stone construction

11. Step Pyramid of Djoser • Created by Imhotep • Immortalized in stone every aspect of life within the royal palace about 2650 BCEthrough stone images • The Step Pyramid was the first piece of monumental architecture created by an artist • Designed to capture the essence of the life of a Pharaoh

12. The Middle Kingdom • As local and provincial officials became increasingly powerful, the strong central government of the Old Kingdom broke down • Resulted in 150 years of civil war – known as the First Intermediate Period • By 2050 BCE, Egypt was reunited under Theban kings • Eventually moved their capital to Memphis  led to a rise in their provincial god – Amon • During the Middle Kingdom, merges with the Sun god Re – Amon-Re • Pharaohs encouraged social mobility of members of the middle class, which discouraged the ambitions of local princes  2 centuries of peace and prosperity

13. External Relations: The Hyksos Invasion • Egypt periodically invaded by the Hyksos from what is now Syria and Palestine • Egyptian army no match to improved bows, horse-drawn chariots, and bronze weapons of the Hyksos • For 150 years, the Hyksos ruled Egypt using the existing Egyptian infrastructure • Once the Egyptians mastered the Hyksos’ new technology, they were able to drive the Hyksos out of Egypt

14. The Role of Trade in Promoting Change • Trade network was centred on the Mediterranean Sea, but went as far as Northern Europe, subtropical Africa, and the Near East • Through trade, ideas, forms of artistic expression, technology, and building methods were spread • Egyptians owed much to Mesopotamians for their concepts of math and writing • Early Greek art and medicine owed a lot to Egypt • Julian (Roman) calendar borrowed from the Egyptians

15. Political Structures and Tradition • Central to the government was the god-king • Pharaoh was seen to be the earthly embodiment of the god Horus, son of Amon-Re • This partial divinity of the king allowed him to mediate between the gods and people, perform the religious rituals central to Egyptian beliefs, and remain separate from his subjects and rule with divine right • Few challengers to the king’s authority • Even though he had absolute power, the Pharaoh needed to rule with Ma’at (equilibrium of the universe) • Kings attempting to alter society radically would be seen as not ruling with Ma’at and this could lead to civil war

16. Succession • Pharaoh passed on the throne to the eldest son born of the Great Royal Wife who was usually the eldest daughter of the previous Pharaoh and sister of the ruling Pharaoh • If no son with the Great Royal Wife, would go to the son of a secondary wife, who would then marry the Great Royal Daughter (or maybe even the Great Royal Wife herself)

17. Government • The Pharaoh owned all the land of Egypt, the people, and their possessions  Any personal wealth was seen as a gift from the Pharaoh • The government officials advised the pharaoh, enforced the laws, pleased the gods, oversaw construction of royal monuments, sought trade opportunities, and collected taxes • Scribes were important as they recorded the actions of the Pharaoh and kept stock of supplies • Often, a scribe filled the role of vizier or prime minster who were advisors to the king and responsible for overseeing the entire administration of government and head of the judiciary • Under the vizier were government officials who collected taxes, supervised agriculture and the granaries, coordinated trading expeditions, oversaw public construction, ran the justice system, and supervised matters of public health

18. Legal Traditions • Egyptian law governed by religious principles • Believed that law was infused into the world by the gods at the time of creation • The goddess Ma’at personified the essential foundations of Egyptian law – truth, righteousness, an justice • The goal of all people was to find and maintain the correct balance and order in the universe • Generally a law-abiding people • Laws were fair and humane, and were equally applied to all people • Emphasized the protection of family • No codified body of law – law was based on precedents

19. Egyptian Punishments • Punishments could be quite severe • A severe punishment would act as a deterrent • In some cases, disgrace was more effective than death • Minor crimes were often punished with 100 lashes and forced labour in the mines • Escape attempts could lead to ears and noses being amputated • Corrupt officials had their hands amputated • Those who released military secrets had their tongues cut out • Also many options for the death penalty

20. Economic Structure • A relatively simple economy based primarily on agriculture, but there was a complex system of trade developed • The Pharaoh retained absolute control over the means of production and the distribution of wealth • Egyptian prosperity and stability were dependent on abundant harvests and the ability to manage food supplies in order to survive years of poor harvests.

21. Public works • Agricultural production was organized to provide a stable food supply for both the living and the dead • Any surplus would be used to trade • Public works needed an enormous amount of labour, most of which came from the poor who had little control over their own lives

22. Egyptian Commerce • Most trade carried out through the barter system • Coinage would not become common until the Roman era • When trade became more complex, they developed a refined system of barter, which used an arbitrary standard (initially wheat) against which all goods were measured • After around 1580 BCE, Egyptians used gold, silver, and copper as an arbitrary standards and introduced a system of weights and measures

23. Egyptian Skilled Trades • Skilled trades were passed from father to son • Children would learn the trades of their parents • Artisans would pass on their secrets to their children • Artists did not work on their own, but instead in teams, which lead to anonymity • Same system was used by artists as by builders of monuments

24. The New Kingdom • The Golden Age of Egypt • Dominated by larger-than-life individuals

25. Hatshepsut • Women rulers were not common as the king was believed to be the son of the god Re and the queen was seen as the daughter of Re. • These roles were not interchangeable • When her husband Tuthmosis II died, Hatshepsut became regent for his son • She decided to rule not as regent, but as ruler herself as a female king

26. Hatshepsut continued • Her statutes show her wearing a beard to symbolize her power • Her reign was seen as a period of peace, prosperity, and stability • She expanded trade and sent a trading expedition to Punt (Somolia) • Built beautiful buildings, such as the temple at Deir al-Bahari • Ruled for 15 years until her stepson reclaimed the throne • Tuthmosis III ordered all references to Hatshepsut as a king removed.

27. Tuthmosis III • By the time he regained the throne from Hatshepsut, Tuthmosis was in his twenties • He had spent his time training in the military • Is knows as the “Napoleon of Egypt” • Much of the wealth for the New Kingdom came from tribute from people conquered by Tuthmosis

28. Egyptian Military Traditions • Had one of the best-trained armies in the Near East • Weren’t warlike, but needed an army to keep neighbours trying to seize the wealth of Egypt • Didn’t like to fight abroad as Egyptians didn’t want to die far from home and not be buried in Egypt • Mercenaries made up a significant part of the army • Egyptians used the powers of the gods to ensure their victory

29. Akhenaton’s Challenge to Authority • Began his reign as Amonhotep IV • Worked on reforming Egyptian religion • Promoted the worshipping of only one god, Aton/Aten • Took name “Akhenaton” – he who serves Aton • Built a new capital city called “Akhetaton” – Place of the Glory of Aton

30. Akhenaton continued • Had the temples of other gods closed • The people of Egypt were expected to worship the royal family while the Pharaoh worshipped Aton • Wrote hymns for his new religion • Akhenaton encouraged realism in art, and is portrayed with a pot belly, long limbs, and an odd-shaped head • Also showed scenes with his family • Because of his obsession with the new religion, Egypt’s power waned and the civilization began to crumble

31. Tutankhamun • Was probably the son of Akhenaton and a minor wife • Came to power at about 9 years old • Married his half-sister Ankhesenpaton • Within a few years of his reign, changed his name from Tutankhaton to Tutankhamun and worked with his officials to return to the traditional Egyptian religion and returned the capital to Thebes • Died at the age of 18 from a blow to the head • Tomb was found by Howard Carter in 1922 – the first intact royal tomb every found

32. Ramses II • Ruled 60 years after Tutankhamun for 67 years • Constructed more monuments than any other Pharaoh, including Abu Simbel (pictured to the right)

33. Continuity in Egyptian Religious Traditions • Egyptians were a deeply religious people for whom the sacred and the secular were inseparable • The religion of Egypt had it basis in the worship of nature deities which led to gods having animal characteristics • Gods with human forms were then added, and often had animal characteristics

34. Myths and Legends in Ancient Egypt • The earth was created from a primeval hill emerged from the water of chaos • The most significant god to emerge during the Middle Kingdom was Amun • Also important was Anubis, Osiris, Horus, and Thoth

35. Intellectual Life • Each individual had a ka, ba, and akh • Infants were placed in a mother’s womb after being created on a potter’s wheel by the god Khnum • Khnum also made a spiritual duplicate called the ka, which was stored in the heart, and at death, was separated from the body and would inhabit the individual’s tomb • The ka would need items such as food, clothing, perfume, and furniture • The ba was a person’s character and was depicted as a human-headed bird • When someone died, his or her mummy needed to be transformed into a form that could exist in the underworld, called the akh • Ma’at was essentially order, truth, and justice, and only by living in accordance with Ma’at, could you achieve harmony with the gods and be assured entry into the afterlife,

36. The Afterlife • The afterlife would be a duplicate of their best moments on Earth • Egyptians would be engaged in the activities they enjoyed most, such as fishing, hunting, feasting, and sailing • Death was not to be feared • The concept of an afterlife was common to all social classes. • There were two basic requirements: • The body must be preserved in a lifelike form • The deceased must be provided with all the items necessary for a life in the hereafter so that the ka would survive

37. Egyptian Burial Practices • Needed to preserve the body to participate in the afterlife • Mummies were originally made when bodies were buried in pit-graves in the hot, dry desert • As burial practices became more elaborate, the tombs were more elaborate • Because the tombs were sealed, bodies were not mummifying, so an artificial method needed to be created • Mummification was costly and time-consuming, so only royalty and nobility could afford the best methods. • Peasants had to rely on natural mummification

38. The Mummification Process • 1. Remove the brain through the nostrils with an iron hook • 2. A priest cut on incision on the left side and removed all the internal organs, but the heart, which was left in place because it was the home of the ka • 3. The liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines were cleansed and then preserved in natron and then placed in four separate canopic jars

39. Mummification continued • 4. Body was washed with wine and the cavity stuffed and then covered with natron for 70 days • 5. Once dried, the body was washed with oils and spices, the mouth and nose were cleansed and stuffed with linen, and the eyelids were stuffed with small onions or linen pads. The body incision was closed and covered with a plate, sometimes gold • 6. the body was wrapped in several layers of linen that had been covered with resins and oils. Amulets and jewelry were hidden amongst the layers.

40. An Egyptian Funeral • Funerals of wealthy people were long and elaborate • Long period of mourning • Female relatives, as well as paid mourners, would bare their breasts and walk through the streets crying aloud • Male relatives would also have bare chests and pound their chests in sorrow • Then the body would be taken to be embalmed • After mummification, the body would be put on a sledge and taken to the tomb • Canopic jars would go on a second sledge • At the rear of the procession would be servants carrying the possession of the deceased • The priest would touch the mouth and eyes of the mummy and then the body was lowered into the tomb, which was then closed

41. Pyramids • Pharaohs had to be buried in tomb that reflected their status as living embodiments of Horus • Symbolized the primeval mound • Over 40 pyramids in Egypt, mostly from the Old Kingdom

42. Pyramid Evolution • Began as mastabas stacked on top of each other • Burial chamber underground • Pyramid construction reached its climax with King Khufu • Took 23 years and 2.5 million stone blocks to build • Eventually realized that pyramids were a bad mistake, so they began to build hidden tombs in the Valley of the Kings and Valley of the Queens near Luxor • Tombs were elaborately decorated with wall paintings of scenes from The Book of the Dead

43. Temples • Dedicated to the gods • Were massive sandstone structures • Were designed to be experienced from the inside during a ceremony • Basic features: • Monumental gateway • Roofless colonnaded court • Great hall with a ceiling resting on massive sandstone columns • Private sanctuary of the god • Part of a larger complex • Largest was the Temple of Amun at Karnak

44. Continuity and Conventions in Egyptian Art • Three keys factors that shaped Egyptian art: • Conservatism • Virtually all art was produced for religious purposes • Pharaoh was the chief patron and subject of the art • Remained unchanged for three thousand years

45. Sculpture • Egyptian sculpture ranged in size from small models to large statues such as the Sphinx • Generally looked straight ahead and were not engaged in any activity • Subjects showed no emotion

46. Carved Relief and Painting • Carved relief and paintings were used to show the gods the character of the deceased and to illustrate the activities he wanted to enjoy in the afterlife • Carved reliefs are pictures that are cut into stone • Paintings were used when the tomb walls were not good enough for carving

47. Rules of Egyptian Art • Not concerned with perspective • Used mathematically precise paintings and reliefs to convey the necessary information • Realism not a concern • Contrived stance • Disproportionate size of the figures • Used false transparency to show what was inside items • Job of the artist was to capture for eternity the essence and character of the deceased

48. Daily Structure: Daily Life in Egypt • The bountiful harvest of the Nile and the isolation caused by the deserts gave all members of Egyptian society a relatively comfortable existence • Artisans, merchants, traders, or labourers would all have lived in a one-story mud brick home that had four, square rooms with window slits to ensure privacy and cool shelter from the hot midday sun • Furnishings would have been simple

49. Ancient Egyptian Social Structure

50. Agriculture • The Nile dictated life in Egypt • When the Nile flooded, dams and canals had to be maintained and repaired • As soon as surveyors had marked out the land with ropes, labourers sowed the seeds • Barley, wheat, onions, leeks, lettuce, radishes, gourds, melons, peas, and lentils were grown • Animals used to churn up the ground and stamp in the seeds • Tax collectors and scribes would calculate and assess taxes • Harvest would end up in the landowner’s kitchen, the town market, or used as payment for labourers’ work