Organizational Design, Diagnosis, and Development

1. Organizational Design, Diagnosis, and Development Session 20 Techno-structural Interventions, III Work Design

2. Objectives • To overview trends in the field of workdesign • To become familiar with the engineering approach To review principles of job rotation and job enlargement • To review the application of Herzberg’s Two factor theory to job design • To review Hackman and Oldham’s Job Characteristics theory

3. Historical Development of Task Design Low Job Enrich- ment, J.C.T, & Socio- technical Systems Specialized Craft Jobs Job En- large ment & ro- tation Degree of Job Specialization & Standardization Scien- tific Man- age ment High Pre 1900s 1900-40 1940-60 1960 - (from Griffin: Task Design: An Integrative Approach, 1982

4. Trends in Job Design • The era of craft workers • The impact of industrialization and mechanization • Engineering approach: Scientific Management and Taylorism • From fractionalization to enlargement • Contemporary perspectives

5. Jobs in the Craft Era • Craft jobs encompass a specialization but not fractionalization • Mechanization breaks jobs into tasks • Babbage (1832) argues specialization for decreasing learning time, waste and fewer tool changes. Also skill gets automated due to repetition

6. Taylor and Scientific Management • The use of work study/measurement to determine a fair quota was a step forward for both management and the workers. • Taylor puts a focus on systematically analyzing jobs and redesigning for effective use of personnel and technology

7. Some Major Principles of Scientific Management • Time studies • Functional or specialized supervision • Standardization of tools and implements • Standardization of work methods • Separate Planning function

8. Frank & Lillian Gilbreth • The efficiency experts • Goal of saving wasted motion and thus fatigue • Applied cinematography to studies • Wanted “happy workers” at all levels • Naturally, the savings that accrue must benefit everyone, but saving lies at the root of fatigue elimination, and if every member of the organization, including the manager and the stockholders, is getting more "Happiness Minutes,” you are surely working along the right lines."

9. Job Rotation • Changing task assignments, not changing task itself. Move worker from one job to another to combat boredom • Used at Ford, Prudential, American Cyanamid • Consequences: • Positive: Increase worker flexibility • Negative: Motivation and productivity not enhanced

10. Job Enlargement • Job enlargement first used on 1940s. It involves horizontal expansion of tasks. • Lengthen cycle time • More task variety • Some responsibility • Programs at IBM, Social Security, Maytag • Consequences • Positive: some enhanced satisfaction & quality of production • Negative: No relationship to individual productivity, no real change in job, higher training costs

11. Two Factor Theory • Herzberg’s Theory developed from research into causes of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction with engineers and accountants • Used critical incidents as the research method • Content analysis of the incidents yielded a set of satisfiers and dissatisfiers

12. Herzberg’s Satisfiers • Motivators • personal growth • recognition • responsibility • promotion opportunities • achievement

13. Herzberg’s Dissatisfiers • Hygiene • supervision • pay • company policies • working conditions • co-workers • job security

14. Impact of Two Factor Theory on Job Design • Motivators influenced concepts of job enrichment • Hygiene factors influenced concepts of quality of work life

15. Job Characteristics Model Core Dimensions Psychological States Outcomes Skill Variety Task Identity Task Signif. High intrinsic motivation High job per- ormance High job satis- faction Low absentee ism & turnover Meaningfulness of Work Responsibility for outcomes Autonomy Knowledge of Results Feedback

16. Moderating Variables for the Job Characteristics Model • Growth need strength • job is a vehicle for personal growth, sense of achievement, avenue for feeling success • Knowledge and skills • Satisfaction with extrinsic aspects of work

17. Implementing Concepts for the Job Characteristics Model • Combine tasks: Effects skill variety, task identity, & task significance • Group tasks into natural work units: Effects task significance and task identity • Give workers contact with customers: Effects skill variety, autonomy, feedback • Vertically load jobs: Effects autonomy • Open feedback channels: Effects feedback • Match personal growth needs to job

18. Criticisms of the Job Characteristics Model • Job characteristics are not distinct • Link to critical psychological states is not clear • Individual differences have an important effect • Job outcomes are not clearly linked to job characteristics

19. Backwards & Forwards • Summing up: Today we covered centuries in job design from the craft era to modern times. Along the way we reviewed the era of scientific management, job rotation and enlargement and the Job Characteristics Theory • Looking Ahead: Next time we continue with job design and consider some contemporary approaches as well as the implications of modern manufacturing and information technologies on job design.