DESIGNING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. DESIGNING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Mellissa Withers, M.H.S., Ph.D. CMORE Series March 19, 2013 12pm

2. Not everything that can be counted counts and not everything that counts can be counted. --Albert Einstein

3. OVERVIEW • Review • What is Qualitative Research? • When to use Qualitative vs. Quantitative Methods • The Steps • Sampling • Methods • Analysis

5. WHAT WENT WRONG?

6. A QUICK REVIEW From Harris, S. (1991). “You want proof? I’ll give you proof!”: More cartoons from Sidney Harris. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.

7. WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH? Any type of research that produces findings not arrived by statistical procedures or other means of quantification. Refers to research about: Person’s lives Lived experiences Behaviors, emotions, feelings Organizational function Social movements Cultural phenomena Strauss & Corbin, 1998

8. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH GOALS: Explore, discover, understand, describe TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS: Why? How?

9. CHARACTERISTICS Starts with general question or problem Usually no pre-defined hypothesis Uses a small, purposeful sample (not random) Often done in naturalistic settings Creswell, 2009

10. CHARACTERISTICS (cont.) In-depth analysis Present results descriptively Focus on participants’ meanings; holistic account Emphasize personal experiences and interpretation over quantification Interpretive; Researcher as key instrument- awareness of own orientations, biases, experiences

11. USE QUALITATIVE METHODS… To explore a topic/population that has previously not been studied To gain a more holistic, contextualized understanding To gain insight into possible causal mechanisms To study behavior in a natural setting (gangs, homelessness, drug use, etc.)

12. USE QUALITATIVE METHODS… To understand local terms, meaning To develop survey instruments To explore quantitative findings To test feasibility To test standardized measurements or instruments on different cultures, populations

18. WHERE DO YOU GO FROM HERE?

19. THE PROCESS Systematic process! STEP 1: Decide on sampling procedure STEP 2: Decide on the specific methods STEP 3: Decide on how to analyze data

20. HOW TO DESIGN A STUDY… STEP 1: DECIDE ON A SAMPLING PROCEDURE • How much is known about this topic and population • Clear eligibility/exclusion criteria • Homogeneity of the population • How to gain access to this population • Your resources

21. APPROPRIATE SAMPLE DESIGN DEPENDS ON… • Degree of accuracy required • Range of possible experiences (homogeneity of target group) • Need for statistical analysis • Difficulty reaching your population • Ethical issues • Resources (i.e. time / money)

22. SAMPLING Adequacy of sample depends not so much on the number of cases Need for smaller but focused samples rather than large, random samples Who will you learn the most from? Depends on the proper specification of the cases to be analyzed

23. SAMPLE SIZE Required size (n) is often unknown Recent guidance- n=30 is large enough sample (Dworkin, 2012) Maximize possibility that all perspectives (positive and negative cases) have been explored Redundancy in information is often a sign that the sample size is adequate -“saturation point” (Morse, 1995)

24. PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING • Non-probability or non-random sampling • Aim is not statistical representativeness but to gain access to the full range of views, perspectives, themes in the population • Used when there is a limited number of individuals who have the relevant information • Sometimes the only meaningful way to investigate

25. PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING • Select cases rich in information with in-depth understanding • Choose subjects who are in the best position to provide data • “Maximum Variation”

26. PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING • Examples: • Snowball • Quota • Stratified • Convenience • Homogenous • Typical case vs. extreme/deviant/critical case • Maximum variation Patton, 1990

27. PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING-EXAMPLES • Snowball sampling • Starting with a small group and asking for further contacts • Useful for sensitive topics • Quota sampling • Population is stratified and numbers within strata are decided • Contacts are made until quotas are full • Quotas can be proportional or non-proportional to the population • Confirming or disconfirming cases • Other examples to confirm research • Criterion sampling • all meet pre-determined criterion--- ex: all dropped out of school, all in Iraq war

28. PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING-EXAMPLES • Convenience sampling • e.g., interviews on the street; simply asking for volunteers; using clients in clinical or business setting • quick, convenient, less expensive • not generalizable at all • Sometimes only way to reach population • Stratified purposeful sampling • Need to stratify in order to make generalizations about comparisons between groups • Each strata will be homogeneous

29. SAMPLING EXAMPLES Sexual practices among men on the down low Women who use cocaine and who have children under age 5 Why some immigrant Asian women do not seek pre-natal care Age at first sex among Latino men Stigma among Mexican parents of children who have cleft lip or palate

30. HOW TO DESIGN A STUDY… STEP 2: DECIDE ON A METHOD How detailed you need the results Potential biases Your time, $$ and resources

31. METHODS Depend on research question & theoretical and philosophical framework Examples of methods: • Documentary Research • Participant Observation • Interviews • Focus Groups • Case Studies • Oral Histories • Observations • Photovoice

32. SELF-REFLEXIVITY Objectivity is not possible (not required) Acknowledge your framework, experience, perspective Researcher influences process from the very beginning all the way through (research question) Requires self-awareness, transparency Convince the reader that the researcher(s) is sufficiently knowledgeable and will produce trustworthy results

33. RELIABILITY & VALIDITY Instead, think of: Trustworthiness Applicability Respect Authenticity Fairness Credibility Meaning in-context Consistency

34. STRATEGIES TO INCREASE TRUSTWORTHINESS • Detailed description of methods • Continuous checking for representativeness of data and fit between coding categories and data • Multiple members of team for analysis

35. STRATEGIES TO INCREASE TRUSTWORTHINESS Prolonged contact with informants Continuous validation of data (member checks) Self-reflexivity; transparency/competence of researcher Triangulation

36. Multiple data collection strategies Kinds of data Subjects (data sources) Data collection strategies Multiple kinds of data Multiple data sources TRIANGULATION

37. A WORD ABOUT FOCUS GROUPS Depends on research question and population Focus groups not appropriate for sensitive topics Group dynamics may influence process Logistically difficult Often no savings for time & $

38. IRB ISSUES • You should have a qualitative expert help you write the study protocol (methods) and the IRB application • You will need documents such as: • Question guides • Screening scripts • Recruitment materials

40. HOW TO DESIGN A STUDY… STEP 3: DECIDE ON DATA ANALYSIS PLAN • Analysis methods vary • Usually based on looking for patterns, themes, linkages between them • Represent people through and in their own words (Miles & Huberman, 1994) • Examples: content analysis, grounded theory

41. DATA ANALYSIS Selecting, focusing, simplifying & transforming Not linear; circular; iterative process Often occurs simultaneously with data collection Multiple readings of data Examination of patterns/themes

42. DATA ANALYSIS • All analytical choices (which codes, quotations to use) • Use of quotes, examples; usually not quantifications • Coding, summaries, clusters: a final report Miles & Huberman, 1994

44. DATA ANALYSIS SOFTWARE Software such as Atlas.ti, Envivo, Nudist helps organize Does not do the analysis for you

45. ESTIMATING TIME FOR ANALYSIS • Depends on if you are audio-taping, transcribing (and translating from another language) • Getting the transcripts can take TIME • Takes much more time to do the analysis- at least 2 hours of analysis for every hour of interview • Should be analyzed by multiple members of team, and validated by member of the target group

46. TRANSCRIPTION? The need to transcribe depends on how detailed you want the data to be If rich, detailed quotes will be helpful to illustrate a complex process, consider transcription Sometimes you can audiotape and review tapes in order to write notes and come up with major themes without nuanced, contextual quotes

47. TRANSCRIPTION SERVICES • Professional transcription services • Estimate about 60-90 mins for interviews & focus groups • $75-90 per hour of audiotape • Assumes you have clear audio and only two English speakers • More speakers or foreign language= higher cost

48. REFERENCES Creswell, J. (2009) Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. 3ed. Lincoln, NB. Sage. Dworkin, S.L. (2012) Sample Size Policy for Qualitative Studies Using In-Depth Interviews. Arch Sex Behavior, 41:1319–1320. Merriam , S.B. (2002) Qualitative Research in Practice: Examples for Discussion and Analysis. San Francisco, CA. Jossey-Bass. Miles, M.B. & Huberman, A.M. (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook. 2ed. Newbury Park, CA. Sage. Morse, J. M. (1995). The significance of saturation. Qualitative Health Research, 5, 147–149 Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1998) Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. 2ed. Thousand Oaks, CA. Sage. Patton, M.Q. (2002) Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. 3ed. Thousand Oaks, CA. Sage.

49. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you to my mentors at UCLA: Dr. Kagawa-Singer Dr. Carole Browner Dr. Paula Tavrow

50. THANK YOU! CONTACT INFORMATION: mellwit@yahoo.com