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Fractures and Dislocations about the Elbow in the Pediatric Patient

Fractures and Dislocations about the Elbow in the Pediatric Patient. Joshua Klatt, MD Original Author: Kevin Shea, MD; March 2004 Revised: Steven Frick, MD; August 2006 Joshua Klatt, MD; Albert Pendleton, MD ; November 2011. Elbow Fractures in Children.

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Fractures and Dislocations about the Elbow in the Pediatric Patient

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  1. Fractures and Dislocationsabout the Elbowin the Pediatric Patient Joshua Klatt, MD Original Author: Kevin Shea, MD; March 2004 Revised: Steven Frick, MD; August 2006 Joshua Klatt, MD; Albert Pendleton, MD ; November 2011

  2. Elbow Fractures in Children • Very common injuries (approximately 65% of pediatric trauma) • Radiographic assessment - difficult for non-orthopaedists, because of the complexity and variability of the physeal anatomy and development • A thorough physical examination is essential, because neurovascular injuries can occur before and after reduction • Compartment syndromes are rare with elbow trauma, but can occur

  3. Elbow FracturesPhysical Examination • Children will usually not move the elbow if a fracture is present, although this may not be the case for non-displaced fractures • Swelling about the elbow is a constant feature, except for non-displaced fracture • Complete vascular exam is necessary, especially in supracondylar fractures • Doppler may be helpful to document vascular status • Neurologic exam is essential, as nerve injuries are common • In most cases, full recovery can be expected

  4. Elbow FracturesPhysical Examination • Neurological exam may be limited by the child’s ability to cooperate because of age, pain, or fear. • Thumb extension – EPL • Radial – PIN branch • Thumb flexion – FPL • Median – AIN branch • Cross fingers/scissors - Ad/Abductors • Ulnar

  5. Elbow FracturesPhysical Examination • Always palpate the arm and forearm for signs of compartment syndrome • Thorough documentation of all findings is important • A simple record of “neurovascular status is intact” is unacceptable (and doesn’t hold up in court…) • Individual assessment and recording of motor, sensory, and vascular function is essential

  6. Elbow FracturesRadiographs • AP and Lateral views are important initial views • In trauma these views may be less than ideal, because it can be difficult to position the injured extremity • Oblique views may be necessary • Especially for the evaluation of suspected lateral condyle fractures • Comparison views frequently obtained by primary care or ER physicians • Although these are rarely used by orthopaedists

  7. Elbow FracturesRadiograph Anatomy/Landmarks • Baumann’s angle is formed by a line perpendicular to the axis of the humerus, and a line that goes through the physis of the capitellum • There is a wide range of normal for this value • Can vary with rotation of the radiograph • In this case, the medial impaction and varus position reduces Bauman’s angle -Baumann E. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Frakturen am Ellbogengelenk: Unter besonderer Berucksichtigung der Spatfolgen. I. Allgemeines und Fractura supra condylica. Beitr Klin Chir 1929;146:1-50. -Mohammad. The Baumann angle in supracondylar fractures of the distal humerus in children. J Pediatr Orthop. 1999;19:65–69.

  8. Elbow FracturesRadiograph Anatomy/Landmarks • Anterior Humeral Line • Drawn along the anterior humeral cortex • Should pass through the middle of the capitellum • Variable in very young children -Rogers. Plastic bowing, torus and greenstick supracondylar fractures of the humerus: radiographic clues to obscure fractures of the elbow in children. Radiology. 1978;128:145. -Herman. Relationship of the anterior humeral line to the capitellar ossific nucleus: variability with age. J Bone Joint Surg. 2009;91:2188.

  9. 30 Elbow FracturesRadiograph Anatomy/Landmarks • The capitellum is angulated anteriorly about 30 degrees. • The appearance of the distal humerus is similar to a hockey stick.

  10. Elbow FracturesRadiograph Anatomy/Landmarks • The physis of the capitellum is usually wider posteriorly, compared to the anterior portion of the physis Wider

  11. Elbow FracturesRadiograph Anatomy/Landmarks • Radiocapitellar line should intersect the capitellum in all views • Make it a habit to evaluate this line on every pediatric elbow film

  12. Supracondylar Humerus Fractures • Most common fracture around the elbow in children • 60 percent of elbow fractures • 95 percent are extension type injuries • Produces posterior angulation/displacement of the distal fragment • Occurs from a fall on an outstretched hand • Ligamentous laxity and hyperextension of the elbow are important mechanical factors • May be associated with a distal radius or forearm fractures Omid. Supracondylar Humeral Fractures in Children. J Bone Joint Surg. 2008;90:1121.

  13. Supracondylar Humerus FracturesClassification • Type 1 • Non-displaced • Type 2 • Angulated/displaced fracture with intact posterior cortex • Type 3 • Complete displacement, with no contact between fragments Gartland. Management of supracondylar fractures of the humerus in children. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1959;109:145-54.

  14. Type 1Non-displaced • Note the non- displaced fracture (Red Arrow) • Note the posterior fat pad (Yellow Arrows) -Skaggs. The posterior fat pad sign in association with occult fracture of the elbow in children. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1999;81:1429. -Bohrer. The fat pad sign following elbow trauma. Its usefulness and reliability in suspecting “invisible” fractures. Clin Radiol. 1970;21:90.

  15. Type 2Angulated/displaced fracture with intact posterior cortex

  16. Type 2Angulated/displaced fracture with intact posterior cortex • In many cases, the type 2 fractures will be impacted medially • Leads to varus angulation • The varus malposition must be considered when reducing these fractures • Apply a valgus force for realignment

  17. Type 3Complete displacement, with no contact between fragments

  18. Supracondylar Humerus Fractures Associated Injuries • Nerve injury incidence is high, between 7 and 16 % • Median, radial, and/or ulnar nerve • Anterior interosseous nerve injury is most commonly injured nerve • In many cases, assessment of nerve integrity is limited • Children can not always cooperate with the exam • Carefully document pre-manipulation exam, • Post-manipulation neurologic deficits can alter decision making Cramer. Incidence of anterior interosseous nerve palsy in supracondylar humerus fractures in children. J Pediatr Orthop. 1993;13:502.

  19. Supracondylar Humerus Fractures Associated Injuries • 5% have associated distal radius fracture • Physical exam of distal forearm • Radiographs if needed • If displaced pin radius also • Difficult to hold appropriately in splint

  20. Supracondylar Humerus Fractures Associated Injuries • Vascular injuries are rare, but pulses should always be assessed before and after reduction • In the absence of a radial and/or ulnar pulse, the fingers may still be well-perfused, because of the excellent collateral circulation about the elbow • Doppler device can be used for assessment White. Perfused, pulseless, and puzzling: a systematic review of vascular injuries in pediatric supracondylar humerus fractures and results of a POSNA questionnaire. J Pediatr Orthop. 2010;30:328.

  21. Supracondylar Humerus Fractures Associated Injuries • Type 3 supracondylar fracture • Absent ulnar and radial pulses • Fingers had capillary refill less than 2 seconds. • The pink, pulseless extremity White. Perfused, pulseless, and puzzling: a systematic review of vascular injuries in pediatric supracondylar humerus fractures and results of a POSNA questionnaire. J Pediatr Orthop. 2010;30:328.

  22. Supracondylar Humerus Fractures Anatomy • The medial and lateral columns are connected by a thin wafer of bone • Approximately 2-3 mm wide in the central portion • If the fracture is malreduced, it is inherently unstable • The medial or lateral columns displace easily into varus or valgus

  23. Supracondylar Humerus Fractures Treatment • Type 1 Fractures • In most cases, these can be treated with immobilization for approximately 3 weeks, at 90 degrees of flexion • If there is significant swelling, do not flex to 90 degrees until the swelling subsides

  24. Supracondylar Humerus Fractures Treatment • Type 2 Fractures: Posterior Angulation • If minimally displaced (anterior humeral line hits part of capitellum) • Immobilization for 3 weeks. • Close follow-up is necessary to monitor for loss of reduction • Displaced (anterior humeral line misses capitellum) • Reduction may be necessary • The degree of posterior angulation that requires reduction is controversial • Check opposite extremity for hyperextension • If varus/valgus malalignment exists, most authors recommend reduction. Fitzgibbons. Predictors of failure of nonoperative treatment for type-2 supracondylar humerus fractures. J Pediatr Orthop. 2011;31:372.

  25. Type 2 FracturesTreatment • Reduction of these fractures is usually not difficult • Maintaining reduction usually requires flexion beyond 90° • Excessive flexion may not be tolerated because of swelling • May require percutaneous pinning to maintain reduction • Most authors suggest that percutaneous pinning is the safest form of treatment for many of these fractures • Pins maintain the reduction and allow the elbow to be immobilized in a more extended position Fitzgibbons. Predictors of failure of nonoperative treatment for type-2 supracondylar humerus fractures. J Pediatr Orthop. 2011;31:372.

  26. Supracondylar Humerus Fractures Treatment • Type 3 Fractures • These fractures have a high risk of neurologic and/or vascular compromise • Can be associated with a significant amount of swelling • Current treatment protocols use percutaneous pin fixation in almost all cases • In rare cases, open reduction may be necessary • Especially in cases of vascular disruption

  27. Supracondylar Humerus FracturesOR Setup • The monitor should be positioned across from the OR table, to allow easy visualization of the monitor during the reduction and pinning -Thometz. Techniques for direct radiographic visualization during closed pinning of supracondylar humerus fractures in children. J Pediatr Orthop. 1990;10:555. -Tremains. Radiation exposure with use of the inverted-c-arm technique in upper-extremity surgery. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2001;83-A:674.

  28. Supracondylar Humerus FracturesOR Setup • The C-Arm fluoroscopy unit can be inverted, using the base as a table for the elbow joint • All personnel in the room should be adequately shielded, as radiation exposure is significantly increased with inverted c-arm • Also can use radiolucent board • The child should be positioned close to the edge of the table, to allow the elbow to be visualized by the c-arm • Make sure to secure patient’s head and body -Thometz. Techniques for direct radiographic visualization during closed pinning of supracondylar humerus fractures in children. J Pediatr Orthop. 1990;10:555. -Tremains. Radiation exposure with use of the inverted-c-arm technique in upper-extremity surgery. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2001;83-A:674.

  29. Supracondylar Elbow FracturesType 2 with Varus Malalignment • During reduction of medially impacted fractures, valgus force should be applied to address this deformity.

  30. Type 3Supracondylar Fracture

  31. Type 3Operative Reduction • Closed reduction with flexion • AP view with elbow held in flexed position to maintain reduction.

  32. Brachialis SignProximal Fragment Buttonholed through Brachialis

  33. Milking ManeuverMilk Soft Tissues over Proximal Spike Archibeck. Brachialis muscle entrapment in displaced supracondylar humerus fractures: a technique of closed reduction and report of initial results. J Pediatr Orthop. 1997;17:298.

  34. Adequate Reduction? • No varus/valgus malalignment • Anterior humeral line should be intact • Minimal rotation • Mild translation is acceptable From: Rang’s children’s fractures. Edited by Dennis R. Wenger, MD, and Maya E. Pring, MD. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2004.

  35. Medial Impaction Fracture Type II fracture with medial impaction – not recognized and varus / extension not reduced

  36. Medial Impaction Fracture Cubitus varus 2 years later

  37. Lateral Pin Placement AP and Lateral views with 2 pins

  38. Pin Configuration Lee. Displaced pediatric supracondylar humerus fractures: biomechanical analysis of percutaneous pinning techniques. J Pediatr Orthop. 2002;22:440.

  39. C-arm Views Oblique views with the C-arm can be useful to help verify the reduction. Note slight rotation and extension on medial column (right image).

  40. Supracondylar Humerus FracturesPin Fixation • Different authors have recommended different pin fixation methods • The medial pin can injury the ulnar nerve • Some advocate 2 or 3 lateral pins to avoid injuring the median nerve • Space pins as widely as possible • If the lateral pins are placed close together at the fracture site, the pins may not provide much resistance to rotation and further displacement • Some recommend one lateral, and one medial pin Sankar. Loss of pin fixation in displaced supracondylar humeral fractures in children: causes and prevention. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2007;89:713.

  41. Pitfalls of Pin Placement • Pins Too Close together • Instability • Fracture displacement • Get one pin in lateral and one in medial column

  42. Supracondylar Humerus FracturesPin Fixation • Even many children have anterior subluxation of the ulnar nerve with hyperflexion of the elbow • Some recommend place two lateral pins, assess fracture stability • If unstable then extend elbow to take tension off ulnar nerve and place medial pin Eberl. Iatrogenic ulnar nerve injury after pin fixation and after antegrade nailing of supracondylar humeral fractures in children. Acta Orthop. 2011;82:606.

  43. Supracondylar Humerus Fractures • After stable reduction and pinning • Elbow can be extended to review the AP radiograph • Baumann’s angle can be assessed on these radiographs • Remember there can be a wide range of normal values for this measurement • With the elbow extended, the carrying angle of the elbow should be reviewed, and clinical comparison as well as radiograph comparison can be performed to assure an adequate reduction.

  44. Supracondylar Humerus Fractures • If pin fixation is used, the pins are usually bent and cut outside the skin • The skin is protected from the pins by placing Xeroform and a felt pad around the pins • The arm is immobilized • The pins are removed in the clinic 3 to 4 weeks later • After radiographs show periosteal healing • In most cases, full recovery of motion can be expected

  45. Supracondylar Humerus Fractures: Indications for Open Reduction • Inadequate reduction with closed methods • Vascular injury • Open fractures

  46. Supracondylar Humerus Fractures:Complications • Compartment syndrome • Vascular injury/compromise • Loss of reduction/malunion • Cubitus varus • Loss of motion • Pin track infection • Neurovascular injury with pin placement Bashyal. Complications after pinning of supracondylar distal humerus fractures. J Pediatr Orthop. 2009;29:704.

  47. Supracondylar Humerus Fractures Flexion type • Rare, only 2% • Distal fracture fragment anterior and flexed • Ulnar nerve injury more common • Reduce with extension • Often requires 2 sets of hands in OF • Hold elbow at 90 degrees after reduction to facilitate pinning Mahan. Operative management of displaced flexion supracondylar humerus fractures in children. J Pediatr Orthop. 2007;27:551.

  48. Flexion Type

  49. Flexion TypePinning

  50. Distal Humeral Complete Physeal Separation • Often in very young children • May be sign of NAT • Swollen elbow,“muffled crepitance” on exam • Through area of wider cross sectional area than SC humerus fx • Restore alignment, may need pinning Peterson. Physeal injuries of the distal humerus. Orthopedics. 1992;15:799. Shrader. Pediatric supracondylar fractures and pediatric physeal elbow fractures. Orthop Clin North Am. 2008;39:163.

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