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Computer Organization and Architecture Lecture 2

Computer Organization and Architecture Lecture 2. Huma Ayub. Department of Software Engineering. University of Engineering and Technology Taxila. 1. Outline. • Computer Generations. • Landmark developments. • Picture Gallery. • Looking into future.

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Computer Organization and Architecture Lecture 2

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  1. Computer Organization and Architecture Lecture 2 Huma Ayub Department of Software Engineering. University of Engineering and Technology Taxila 1

  2. Outline • Computer Generations • Landmark developments • Picture Gallery • Looking into future • Introduction to MIPS Instruction Set

  3. Five Generations of Computers • History of computer developmentdivided into 5 generations • Each generation characterized by a majortechnological development • Fundamental changes in terms of - Size, Cost, Power, Efficiency, Reliability

  4. First Generation - 1940’s and 50’s: Vacuum Tubes • Expensive, bulky, unreliable, power guzzlers • Used punched cards/tapes, magnetic drum memories, machinelanguage

  5. Second Generation - 1950’s and 60’s: Transistors • Smaller, faster, cheaper,more energy‐efficientand more reliable ascompared to vacuumtubes • Assembly languages,early versions of FORTRAN and COBOL

  6. Third Generation - 1960’s and 70’s: Integrated Circuits • SSI, MSI, LSI • Speed and efficiencydrastically increased • Keyboards and monitors (Interactive now) • Operating systems More compact.

  7. Fourth Generation - 1970’s toPresent: Microprocessors • LSI and VLSI • Made home computing andembedded computing possible • Graphics and mouse • Hand held devices

  8. Fifth Generation ‐ Present andBeyond: Artificial Intelligence • Voice input/output • Natural languageinput/output • Parallel computing • Dual Core/QuadCore • Centrino, GPU

  9. Relative performance per unit cost Year Technology Perf/cost 1951 Vacuum tube 1 1965 Transistor 35 1975 Integrated circuit 900 1995 VLSI 2,400,000

  10. Growth in DRAM Capacity 100,000 64M 16M 10,000 4M 1M 1000 256K 100 64K 16K10 1996 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 Year of introduction

  11. Increase in workstation performance 1200 DEC Alpha 21264/600 1100 1000900 800700600 500 DEC Alpha 5/500 400 300 DEC Alpha 5/300 200 DEC Alpha 4/266IBM POWER 100 SUN-4/ MIPS MIPS IBM260 M/120 M2000RS6000 100 DEC AXP/500HP 9000/750 0 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Year

  12. Computer History • http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline • Next Few Slides on Computer History 11

  13. Year Inventors/Inventions Description of Event Konrad Zuse - Z1Computer First programmablecomputer. 1936 Harvard architecture. Separate data and program memory H. Aiken & G. Hopper 1944 Harvard Mark I Computer J.P.Eckert, 1946 J.W.Mauchly 18,000 vacuum tubes ENIAC 1 Computer This invention greatlyaffected the history ofcomputers. J. Bardeen, W. Brattain 1947 & W. Shockley /48 The Transistor

  14. Year Inventors/Inventions Description of Event Konrad Zuse - Z1Computer First programmablecomputer. 1936 H. Aiken & G. Hopper 1944 Harvard Mark I Harvard architecture. Computer J.P.Eckert, 1946 J.W.Mauchly 18,000 vacuum tubes ENIAC 1 Computer This invention greatlyaffected the history ofcomputers. J. Bardeen, W. Brattain 1947 & W. Shockley /48 The Transistor

  15. Year Inventors/Inventions Description of Event J.P.Eckert, J.W. First commercialcomputer. 1951 Mauchly UNIVAC Computer IBM 701 EDPMComputer IBM enters into 'TheHistory of Computers. 1953 John Backus & IBM 1954 First successful HLL FORTRAN Stanford ResearchInstitute, Bank ofAmerica, and GE First bank industrycomputer – also MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Reading ). 1955 used1959 ERMA and MICR

  16. Year Inventors/Inventions Description of Event Jack Kilby & Robert Otherwise known as'The Chip' 1958 Noyce The Integrated Circuit Steve Russell & MIT The first computergame invented. 1962 Spacewar Computer Game Douglas Engelbart Nicknamed the mouse 1964 Computer Mouse & because the tail came Windows out of the end. 1969 ARPAnet The original Internet.

  17. Year Inventors/Inventions Description of Event Intel 1103 ComputerMemory The world's first 1970 available DRAM chip.The first Faggin, Hoff & Mazor 1971 microprocessor.Nicknamed "Floppy"for its flexibility. Intel 4004 Alan Shugart &IBM 1971 Flexible Disk R. Metcalfe & Xerox 1973 Ethernet Computer Networking. Networking

  18. Year Inventors/Inventions Description of Event 1974/ Scelbi, Mark-8 Altair, The first consumer 75 IBM 5100 computers. 1976/ Apple I, II & TRS-80 More first consumer 77 & Commodore Pet computers. D.Bricklin, B. Paid for itself in twoweeks. Frankston 1978 VisiCalcSpreadsheet Seymour Rubenstein 1979 & Rob Barnaby Word Processors. WordStar Software

  19. Year Inventors/Inventions Description of Event IBM The IBM PC -Home Computer Personal computerrevolution 1981 Microsoft Operating system ofthe century. MS-DOS ComputerOperating SystemApple Lisa 1981 The first home 1983 computer with a GUI.More affordable homecomputer with a GUI.MS begins the friendlywar with Apple. Computer Apple MacintoshComputer 1984 1985 Microsoft Windows

  20. IBM´s SSEC : Selective SequenceElectronic Calculator:(ElecMechCal ) Produced moon‐position tables used for the course of 1969 Apollo flight to the moon. Speed: 50 mults per second Input/ cards, punched tape output: 20,000 relays, 12,500 Techno‐ vacuum tubes logy: Floor 25 feet by 40 feet space:

  21. UNIVAC I : (UNIVersal Automatic Computer) Commercial computer Speed: 1,905 ops / second Input/ mag tape, printer output: Memory 1,000 12‐digit words in size: delay lines Techno‐ vacuum tubes, delay lines, logy: magnetic tape Floor 943 cubic feet space: $750K + $185K for a high Cost: speed printer

  22. IBM 360 CDC6600 (Control Data Corporation)

  23. ILLIAC IV (Illinois Automatic Computer)

  24. Mini Computer PDP 8 HP 2115 (Programmed Data Processor)

  25. Xerox Alto Window based interface CRAY‐1:early super computer Saymour Cray Founder

  26. Looking into Future • Grid computing: computing world wide • Nano technology: • Quantum computing: • DNA computing: based on bio chemistry

  27. - Moore's Law - Predicted in 1965 by Gordon Moore, the cofounder of Intel - Number of transistors per chip would double every year - Modified later to: doubling every 18 months - 1 million transistors per chip was reached in the 80's - 1971: 2300 transistors, Intel 4004 - 1985: 275000 transistors, Intel 386 - 2001: 42 million transistors, Intel Xeon - 2004: 55 million transistors, Intel Pentium 4

  28. On the ENIAC, all programming was done at the digital logic level. Programming the computer involved moving plugs and wires. A different hardware configuration was needed to solve every unique problem type. The von Neumann Model Configuring the ENIAC to solve a “simple” problem required many days labor by skilled technicians.

  29. The invention of stored program computers has been described to a mathematician, John von Neumann, Stored-program computers have become known as von Neumann Architecture systems. The von Neumann Model

  30. Today’s stored-program computers have the following characteristics: Three hardware systems: A central processing unit (CPU) A main memory system An I/O system The capacity to carry out sequential instruction processing. A single data path between the CPU and main memory. This single path is known as the von Neumann bottleneck. 1.7 T The von Neumann Model he von Neumann Model

  31. This is a general depiction of a von Neumann system: These computers employ a fetch-decode-execute cycle to run programs as follows . . . The von Neumann Model

  32. The control unit fetches the next instruction from memory using the program counter to determine where the instruction is located. 1.7 TheThe von Neumann Modelvon Neumann Model

  33. The instruction is decoded into a language that the ALU can understand. 1.7 The von Neumann Model The von Neumann Model

  34. Any data operands required to execute the instruction are fetched from memory and placed into registers within the CPU. 1.7 T The von Neumann Model he von Neumann Model

  35. The ALU executes the instruction and places results in registers or memory. The von Neumann Model

  36. Conventional stored-program computers have undergone many incremental improvements over the years. These improvements include adding specialized buses, floating-point units, and cache memories, to name only a few. But enormous improvements in computational power require departure from the classic von Neumann architecture. Adding processors is one approach. 1.8Non-von Neumann Models Non-Neumann Models

  37. In the late 1960s, high-performance computer systems were equipped with dual processors to increase computational throughput. In the 1970s supercomputer systems were introduced with 32 processors. Supercomputers with 1,000 processors were built in the 1980s. In 1999, IBM announced its Blue Gene system containing over 1 million processors. 1.8 Non-von Neumann Models

  38. MIPS Instruction Set 1

  39. Outline • Introduction to MIPS Instruction Set • MIPS Arithmetic's • Register Vs Memory, Registers Name • Byte Ordering

  40. Machine Language Machine language consists of all the primitive/basic instructions that a computer understands and is able to execute. These are strings of 1s and 0s.Machine language is the computer’s native language. Commands in the machine language are expressed as strings of 1s and 0s. It is the lowest level language of a computer, and requires no further interpretation.

  41. The Concept of Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) ISA, which serves as an interface between the program and the functional units of a computer, i.e., through which, the computer’s resources, are accessed and controlled.

  42. Instruction Set A collection of all possible machine language commands that a computer can understand and execute is called its instruction set. Every processor has its own unique instruction set. Therefore, programs written for one processor will generally not run on another processor. This is quite unlike programs written in higher-level languages, which may be portable. Assembly/machine languages are generally unique to the processors on which they are run, because of the differences in computer architecture

  43. Hierarchical View As discussed previously, computing languages are translated from source code to assembly language to machine language .

  44. Instructions • Instruction set design goals • Maximize performance • Minimize cost, • • Reduce design time

  45. Example: Instruction Set Architecture MIPS • Representative of architectures developed sincethe 1980's • Used by NEC, Nintendo, Silicon Graphics, Sony • Real architecture but easy to understand MIPS: Millions Instructions Per Sec:Measure

  46. The MIPS instruction format uses the KISS principle (keep it simple and stupid). As we say more formally

  47. Design Principle #1:Simplicity favors regularity. This means that the MIPS instruction format is the same for all instructions. Each instruction begins with an opcode that tells the machine what to do, followed by one to three operand symbols.

  48. MIPS Arithmetic • Design Principle 2: Smaller is faster • Operands must be registers, only 32 registersprovided (smaller is faster) • Expressions need to be broken C code MIPS code A = B + C + D; add $t0, $s1, $s2 E = F ‐ A; add $s0, $t0, $s3 sub $s4, $s5, $s0

  49. Registers vs. Memory • Scalars mapped to registers • Structures, arrays etc in memory Control Input Memory Datapath Output Processor I/O

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