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Macalester College Intermediate Macroeconomic Analysis Spring 2006

Macalester College Intermediate Macroeconomic Analysis Spring 2006 THE SOLOW MODEL Income and poverty in the world selected countries, 2000 annual growth rate of income per capita percentage increase in standard of living after… Huge effects from tiny differences …25 years …50 years

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Macalester College Intermediate Macroeconomic Analysis Spring 2006

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  1. Macalester CollegeIntermediate Macroeconomic AnalysisSpring 2006 THE SOLOW MODEL

  2. Income and poverty in the world selected countries, 2000

  3. annual growth rate of income per capita percentage increase in standard of living after… Huge effects from tiny differences …25 years …50 years …100 years 2.0% 64.0% 169.2% 624.5% 2.5% 85.4% 243.7% 1,081.4%

  4. The Solow Model • Due to Robert Solow, won Nobel Prize for contributions to the study of economic growth. • A major paradigm: • widely used in policy making • benchmark against which most recent growth theories are compared • Looks at the determinants of economic growth and the standard of living in the long run

  5. The production function • In aggregate terms: Y = F (K, L ) • Define: y = Y/L = output per worker k = K/L = capital per worker • Assume constant returns to scale:zY = F (zK, zL ) for any z > 0 • Pick z = 1/L. Then Y/L = F (K/L , 1) y = F (k, 1) y = f(k) where f(k) = F (k, 1)

  6. Output per worker, y f(k) MPK =f(k +1) – f(k) 1 Capital per worker, k The production function Note: this production function exhibits diminishing MPK.

  7. Saving and investment • saving (per worker) = y – c = y – (1–s)y = sy • National income identity is y = c + i • Using the results above, i = sy = sf(k)

  8. Output per worker, y f(k) c1 sf(k) y1 i1 Capital per worker, k k1 Output, consumption, and investment

  9. Depreciation per worker, k k 1  Capital per worker, k Depreciation  = the rate of depreciation = the fraction of the capital stock that wears out each period

  10. Capital accumulation Change in capital stock = investment – depreciation k = i– k Since i = sf(k) , this becomes: k = sf(k)– k

  11. The steady state If investment is just enough to cover depreciation then capital per worker will remain constant. This constant value, denoted k*, is called the steady state capital stock.

  12. Investment and depreciation k sf(k) k* Capital per worker, k The steady state

  13. Approaching the Steady State Year k y c i k k 1 4.000 2.000 1.400 0.600 0.400 0.200 2 4.200 2.049 1.435 0.615 0.420 0.195 3 4.395 2.096 1.467 0.629 0.440 0.189 4 4.584 2.141 1.499 0.642 0.458 0.184 … 10 5.602 2.367 1.657 0.710 0.560 0.150 … 25 7.351 2.706 1.894 0.812 0.732 0.080 … 100 8.962 2.994 2.096 0.898 0.896 0.002 …  9.000 3.000 2.100 0.900 0.900 0.000

  14. Investment and depreciation δk s2 f(k) s1 f(k) k An increase in the saving rate An increase in the saving rate raises investment causing the capital stock to grow toward a new steady state:

  15. Prediction • Higher s higher k*. • And since y = f(k) , higher k*  higher y* . • Thus, the Solow model predicts that countries with higher rates of saving and investment will have higher levels of capital and income per worker in the long run.

  16. International Evidence

  17. steady state output and depreciation k* f(k*) steady-state capital per worker, k* The Golden Rule Capital Stock Then, graph f(k*) and k*, and look for the point where the gap between them is biggest.

  18. k* f(k*) The Golden Rule Capital Stock c*= f(k*)  k*is biggest where the slope of the production function equals the slope of the depreciation line: MPK =  steady-state capital per worker, k*

  19. Golden Rule Steady State • The economy does NOT have a tendency to move toward the Golden Rule steady state. • Achieving the Golden Rule requires that policymakers adjust s. • This adjustment leads to a new steady state with higher consumption. • But what happens to consumption during the transition to the Golden Rule?

  20. time Starting with too much capital then increasing c* requires a fall in s. In the transition to the Golden Rule, consumption is higher at all points in time. y c i t0

  21. Starting with too little capital then increasing c* requires an increase in s. Future generations enjoy higher consumption, but the current one experiences an initial drop in consumption. y c i t0 time

  22. Population Growth • Assume that the population--and labor force-- grow at rate n. (n is exogenous) • EX: Suppose L = 1000 in year 1 and the population is growing at 2%/year (n = 0.02). Then L = n L = 0.02  1000 = 20,so L = 1020 in year 2.

  23. Break-even investment ( +n)k = break-even investment, the amount of investment necessary to keep kconstant. Break-even investment includes: • k to replace capital as it wears out • nk to equip new workers with capital Otherwise, k would fall as the existing capital stock would be spread more thinly over a larger population of workers)

  24. actual investment break-even investment The equation of motion for k • With population growth, the equation of motion for k is k = sf(k)  (+n)k

  25. Investment, break-even investment (+n)k sf(k) k* Capital per worker, k The Solow Model diagram k=s f(k)  ( +n)k

  26. (+n2)k sf(k) k2* The impact of population growth Investment, break-even investment (+n1)k An increase in n causes an increase in break-even investment, leading to a lower steady-state level of k. k1* Capital per worker, k

  27. Prediction • Higher n lower k*. • And since y = f(k) , lower k*  lower y* . • Thus, the Solow model predicts that countries with higher population growth rates will have lower levels of capital and income per worker in the long run.

  28. International Evidence

  29. The Golden Rule with Population Growth To find the Golden Rule capital stock, we again express c* in terms of k*: c* = y*i* = f(k*) ( +n)k* c* is maximized when MPK =  + n or equivalently, when MPK  = n

  30. Tech. progress in the Solow model • A new variable: E = labor efficiency • Assume: Technological progress is labor-augmenting: it increases labor efficiency at the exogenous rate g:

  31. Tech. progress in the Solow model • We now write the production function as: • where LE = the number of effective workers. • Hence, increases in labor efficiency have the same effect on output as increases in the labor force.

  32. Tech. progress in the Solow model • Notation: y = Y/LE = output per effective worker k = K/LE = capital per effective worker • Production function per effective worker:y = f(k) • Saving and investment per effective worker:s y = s f(k)

  33. Tech. progress in the Solow model ( +n +g)k = break-even investment: the amount of investment necessary to keep k constant. Consists of: k to replace depreciating capital nk to provide capital for new workers gk to provide capital for the new “effective” workers created by technological progress

  34. Investment, break-even investment (+n+g)k sf(k) k* Capital per worker, k Tech. progress in the Solow model k=s f(k)  ( +n +g)k

  35. Variable Symbol Steady-state growth rate Steady-State Growth Rates in the Solow Model with Tech. Progress Capital per effective worker k =K/(LE ) 0 Output per effective worker y =Y/(LE ) 0 Output per worker (Y/L) =yE g Total output Y =yE L n + g

  36. The Golden Rule To find the Golden Rule capital stock, express c* in terms of k*: c* = y*i* = f(k*) ( +n +g)k* c* is maximized when MPK = +n+g or equivalently, when MPK  = n+g

  37. Evaluating the Rate of Saving • Use the Golden Rule to determine whether our saving rate and capital stock are too high, too low, or about right. • To do this, we need to compare (MPK  ) to (n+g ). • If (MPK  ) > (n+g ), then we are below the Golden Rule steady state and should increase s. • If (MPK  ) < (n+g ), then we are above the Golden Rule steady state and should reduce s.

  38. Investment, break-even investment f(k) Capital per worker, k Evaluating the Rate of Saving The U.S. is below the Golden Rule steady state (+n+g)k

  39. Policies to increase the saving rate • Reduce the government budget deficit (or increase the budget surplus) • Increase incentives for private saving: • reduce capital gains tax, corporate income tax, estate tax as they discourage saving • replace federal income tax with a consumption tax • expand tax incentives for IRAs (individual retirement accounts) and other retirement savings accounts

  40. Allocating the economy’s investment • In the Solow model, there’s one type of capital. • In the real world, there are many types, which we can divide into three categories: • private capital stock • public infrastructure • human capital: the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education

  41. Allocating the economy’s investment • Equalize tax treatment of all types of capital in all industries, then let the market allocate investment to the type with the highest marginal product. • Industrial policy: The government should actively encourage investment in capital of certain types or in certain industries, because they may have positive externalities (by-products) that private investors don’t consider.

  42. Encouraging technological progress • Patent laws • Tax incentives for R&D • Grants to fund basic research at universities

  43. Growth in output per person (percent per year) Canada 2.9 1.8 France 4.3 1.6 Germany 5.7 2.0 Italy 4.9 2.3 Japan 8.2 2.6 U.K. 2.4 1.8 U.S. 2.2 1.5 The Productivity Slowdown 1948-72 1972-95

  44. Explanations • Measurement problems • Oil prices • Worker quality • Depletion of ideas

  45. Growth in output per person (percent per year) Canada 2.9 1.8 2.7 France 4.3 1.6 2.2 Germany 5.7 2.0 1.7 Italy 4.9 2.3 4.7 Japan 8.2 2.6 1.1 U.K. 2.4 1.8 2.5 U.S. 2.2 1.5 2.9 The “New Economy” 1948-72 1972-95 1995-2000

  46. The “New Economy” Apparently, the computer revolution didn’t affect aggregate productivity until the mid-1990s. Two reasons: 1. Computer industry’s share of GDP much bigger in late 1990s than earlier. 2. Takes time for firms to determine how to utilize new technology most effectively The big questions: • Will the growth spurt of the late 1990s continue? • Will I.T. remain an engine of growth?

  47. Growth empirics Solow model’s steady state exhibits balanced growth - many variables grow at the same rate. • Solow model predicts Y/Land K/Lgrow at same rate (g), so that K/Yshould be constant. • Solow model predicts real wage grows at same rate as Y/L, while real rental price is constant.

  48. Convergence • Solow model predicts that, other things equal, “poor” countries (with lower Y/L and K/L ) should grow faster than “rich” ones. • If true, then the income gap between rich & poor countries would shrink over time, and living standards “converge.”

  49. Endogenous Growth Theory • Solow model: • sustained growth in living standards is due to tech progress • the rate of tech progress is exogenous • Endogenous growth theory: • a set of models in which the growth rate of productivity and living standards is endogenous

  50. A basic model • Production function: Y = AKwhere A is the amount of output for each unit of capital (A is exogenous & constant) • Key difference between this model & Solow: MPK is constant here, diminishes in Solow • Investment: sY • Depreciation: K • Equation of motion for total capital: K = sY  K

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