Chapter 17

1. Chapter 17 Motivation

2. General Effects of Motivation Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation Drives & Incentives Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-worth Theory Individual Differences Role of Affect Promoting Motivation Chapter Overview

3. General Effects of Motivation • Motivation: an internal state that arouses us to engage or remain engaged in certain activities • Motivated individuals achieve more

4. General Effects of Motivation • Motivation influences behavior by • Increasing energy and activity levels • Directing us toward goals • Promoting initiation of activities (and maintaining persistence) • Increasing cognitive engagement (use of learning strategies and cognitive processes)

5. Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation • Extrinsic motivation: motivation for a task originates outside the individual and the task • Can promote successful learning and behavior modification • Examples • Mowing the yard to get an allowance

6. Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation • Intrinsic motivation: motivation to complete a task lies within the individual and the task • Optimal for learning (p. 409) • Example • Mowing the yard because I think it is fun

7. Drives & Incentives • Drive theory (Freud, 1949; Hull, 1943; Woodworth, 1918) proposes that humans try to maintain homeostasis, or a balance of optimal functioning • Drive: an internal state of need • We behave in ways that reduce our drives so that we stay in balance • A hungry person eats; a thirsty person drinks • Reinforcers are effective only if they reduce a drive/need state

8. Drives & Incentives • Hull’s ideas • The strength and intensity of a behavior is a function of the habit strength and drive • Strength of behavior = habit X drive • Research findings (Perin, 1942; Williams, 1938) • Greater habit strength (more training) and/or greater drive (more hunger) resulted in more lever pressing by rats

9. Drives & Incentives • Hull’s (1951) ideas revised • We have acquired drives that serve no biological purpose • Incentives play a role in human motivation • So… Strength of behavior = habit X drive X incentive

10. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • A perspective of motivation based on a hierarchy of five needs • Physiological needs • Safety needs • Love and belongingness needs • Esteem needs • Need for self-actualization • First four are deficiency needs; last is a growth need

11. Self-Worth Theory • We have a biologically significant need for competence • We work to protect our self-worth (Covington, 1992) • Sometimes we engage in self-handicapping by • Setting unattainably high goals • Procrastinating • Reducing effort • Using alcohol or drugs

12. Individual Differences • Need for affiliation – the degree to which we want and need friendly relationships with others • High need for affiliation • Nervous when others observe performance • Spend time communicating with others • Attitudes and opinions are influenced by others • More interested in interpersonal relationships than task accomplishment • Children and adolescents appear to have high need for affiliation – spend time socializing and maintaining friendships

13. Individual Differences • Need for approval – a desire to “look good” to others • Elementary school kids often want to look good to their teachers • Secondary school kids want to look good to their peers • High need for approval • Low self-esteem • Compromise standards to behave in ways that please others • Try too hard to be liked – often unpopular

14. Individual Differences • Need for achievement – aka achievement motivation; the need for excellence for its own sake, without regard for external rewards

15. Individual Differences • High need for achievement • Set realistic goals • Persist at tasks that are challenging • Set increasingly high standards • Delay gratification

16. Individual Differences • Atkinson’s theory of achievement motivation • There are two needs that relate to our tendency to strive for achievement • Motive for success – desire to do well • Motive to avoid failure – anxiety about failing to accomplish goals

17. Individual Differences • Motive for success • Choose moderately challenging tasks that can be accomplished • Don’t worry about mistakes; low motive to avoid failure • Recognize that success on difficult tasks is more noteworthy than success on easy tasks

18. Individual Differences • Motive to avoid • Choose tasks that are easily accomplished • Also choose tasks that are impossible; failing to accomplish them does not matter

19. Individual Differences • Need for achievement across the lifespan • May decrease as children progress through the school grades • May be low during transitional years (elementary to junior high) • Our understanding of achievement changes as we develop; we define success in different ways

20. Individual Differences • Need for achievement and gender • Males and females have greater need for achievement in areas related to gender stereotypes

21. Role of Affect • Affect refers to the feelings and emotions you bring to bear on a task • Hot cognition – the idea that our thoughts and memories have an emotional component • Mood-dependent memory – our mood influences our ability to retrieve information

22. Role of Affect • Anxiety – uneasiness and apprehension about a situation • Worry is the cognitive aspect • Emotionality is related to the behavioral aspects of anxiety (increased heartbeat, perspiration) • State anxiety is temporary anxiety elicited by a specific stimulus • Trait anxiety is chronic anxiety in certain situations

23. Role of Affect • Effects on learning and performance • Yerkes-Dodson law – there is an optimal level of arousal (see p.423) • Anxiety can interfere with attention to a task • Worry can eat up attentional resources

24. Role of Affect • Test anxiety appears to come from the evaluative nature of tests • Rare in early grades, but increases throughout school years

25. Promoting Student Motivation • Students should be intrinsically motivated • Make sure nonacademic needs are met • Capitalize on affect • Assessments should not be judgments of ability and worth

26. The End.