Newton, Einstein, and Gravity

1. Newton, Einstein, and Gravity Chapter 5

2. Guidepost Astronomers are gravity experts. All of the heavenly motions described in the preceding chapters are dominated by gravitation. Isaac Newton gets the credit for discovering gravity, but even Newton couldn’t explain what gravity was. Einstein proposed that gravity is a curvature of space, but that only pushes the mystery further away. “What is curvature?” we might ask. This chapter shows how scientists build theories to explain and unify observations. Theories can give us entirely new ways to understand nature, but no theory is an end in itself. Astronomers continue to study Einstein’s theory, and they wonder if there is an even better way to understand the motions of the heavens. The principles we discuss in this chapter will be companions through the remaining chapters. Gravity is universal.

3. Outline I. Galileo and Newton A. Galileo and Motion B. Newton and the Laws of Motion C. Mutual Gravitation II. Orbital Motion A. Orbits B. Orbital Velocity C. Calculating Escape Velocity D. Kepler's Laws Re-examined E. Newton's Version of Kepler's Third Law F. Astronomy After Newton III. Einstein and Relativity A. Special Relativity B. The General Theory of Relativity C. Confirmation of the Curvature of Space-Time

4. A New Era of Science Mathematics as a tool for understanding physics

5. Galileo and Inertia Forefather of modern science: conducts experiments using scientific method. Used inclined planes and tried to eliminate friction to study motion. Determined that objects (without friction) naturally maintain motion-they have inertia

6. Galileo and Gravity Acceleration of gravity is independent of the mass (weight) of the falling object. Friction interferes with falling bodies so they fall differently. Iron ball Wood ball Without friction, all bodies fall at same rate near Earth’s surface.

7. Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727) • Builds on the results of Galileo and Kepler • Adds physics to the mathematical descriptions of astronomy by Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler • “If I have seen farther than others, it has been by standing on the shoulders of giants.” Major achievements: • Invented Calculus as a necessary tool to solve mathematical problems related to motion • Discovered the three laws of motion • Discovered the universal law of mutual gravitation

8. Newton’s Laws of Inertia 1st Law: A body continues at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by some net force. Example: A spacecraft moving in space will continue to travel forever in a straight line unless some external force acts on it.

9. Newton’s Laws of Acceleration 2nd Law: The accelerationa of a body is inversely proportional to its mass m, directly proportional to the net forceF, and in the same direction as the net force. a = F/m F = m a Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes: a race car goes from 0 to 200 mph in a few seconds! Aristotle’s “natural” and “violent” motion are rejected. Newton says that constant speed in a straight line is natural, and any accelerated motion is forced.

10. Newton’s Laws of Action/Reaction 3rd Law: To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. A rifle pushes on a bullet and the bullet pushes on the rifle The same force that is accelerating the boy forward, is accelerating the skateboard backward. A rocket is pushed up by forcing exhaust out of engine.

11. The Universal Law of Gravity • Newton assumed the laws of the universe apply to terrestrial (Earth) objects and celestial (above Earth) objects alike. He compared a falling apple (downward acceleration) with the orbiting moon (circular acceleration). • Newton found that any two bodies attract each other through gravitation, with a force equal to the product of their masses divided by the square of their distance. There’s a constant too. For astronomy, a body of mass m orbits another body of mass M. Gravity & Inverse Square Law

12. Understanding Orbital Motion The universal law of gravity allows us to understand orbital motion of planets and moons: Example: • Earth and moon attract each other through gravitation. • Since Earth is much more massive than the moon, the moon’s effect on Earth is small (tides!). v v • Earth’s gravitational force constantly accelerates the moon towards Earth (not straight). moon F • This acceleration is constantly changing the moon’s direction of motion, keeping it on an almost circular orbit. Earth

13. Center of Mass (SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

14. Orbital Motion (2) In order to stay on a closed orbit, an object has to be within a certain range of velocities: Too slow  object falls back down to Earth Too fast  object escapes Earth’s gravity Satellite projection animation

15. Newton’s Cannon (SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

16. Orbital Motion (3) Geosynchronous Orbits

17. Geosynchronous Orbit (SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

18. Kepler’s Laws Explained by Newton 1st Law: The orbits of the planets are ellipses with the sun at one focus. 2nd Law: A line from a planet to the sun sweeps over equal areas in equal intervals of time. 3rd Law: A planet’s orbital period (P) squared is proportional to its average distance from the sun (a) cubed. Py2 = aAU3 All laws of planetary motion are proved using law of gravitation! Planet Platonic Solid Mercury Inside the Octahedron Venus Octahedron Earth Icosahedron Mars Dodecahedron Jupiter Tetrahedron Saturn Cube Kepler Newton

19. Einstein and Relativity Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955) showed that Newton’s laws of motion are approximate. For low velocities they work well, but not for high velocities (near the speed of light.) • Einstein developed two theories: • Theory of Special Relativity • for constant velocities • revised ideas of space and time • Theory of General Relativity • for acceleration • revises concept of gravitation

20. Two Postulates Leading to Special Relativity (1) • Observers can never detect their uniform motion, except relative to other objects. This is equivalent to: The laws of physics are the same for all observers, no matter what their motion, as long as they are not accelerated.

21. Two Postulates Leading to Special Relativity (2) • The velocity of light, c, is constant and will be the same for all observers, independent of their motion relative to the light source.

22. Basics of Special Relativity • Time Dilation • Time is not absolute! It is “relative”. Depends on motion of an observer. Light clock animation • Examples • Atomic clocks keep precise time. When a clock is flown on an airplane, it slows down compared with another atomic clock that remained at rest. • Global Positioning Satellites (GPS) • require relativity for exact results.

23. Basics of Special Relativity • Length Contraction • Length is not absolute! It’s “relative” - depends on motion of on observer. Length contraction animation • Energy/Mass Equivalence • Mass is not absolute – it’s relative too! • Objects that move have kinetic energy. • But so do objects at rest - they have “rest energy” • Nuclear energy utilizes the conversion of mass to energy with radioactive elements.

24. Basics of Special Relativity

25. General Relativity A new description of gravity Equivalence Principle: “Observers can not tell the difference between acceleration and gravitational forces.” Which also means: “Mass tells space-time how to curve, and the curvature of space-time (gravity) tells mass how to accelerate.”

26. Another Thought Experiment Imagine a light source on board a rapidly accelerated space ship: Time Time a Light source a a a g As seen by a “stationary” observer As seen by an observer on board the space ship

27. Thought Experiment (2) For the accelerated observer, the light ray appears to bend downward! Now, we can’t distinguish between this inertial effect and the effect of gravitational forces Thus, a gravitational force equivalent to the inertial force must also be able to bend light!

28. Thought Experiment (Conclusion) This bending of light by the gravitation of massive bodies has indeed been observed: During total solar eclipses: The positions of stars apparently close to the sun are shifted away from the position of the sun. New description of gravity as curvature of space-time!

29. Another manifestation of bending of light: Gravitational lenses A massive galaxy cluster is bending and focusing the light from a background object.

30. Other Effects of General Relativity • Perihelion advance (in particular, of Mercury) • Gravitational red shift: Light from sources near massive bodies seems shifted towards longer wavelengths (red).

31. New Terms natural motion violent motion acceleration of gravity momentum mass acceleration velocity inverse square law field circular velocity geosynchronous satellite center of mass closed orbit escape velocity open orbit angular momentum energy joule (J) special relativity general theory of relativity

32. Discussion Questions 1. How did Galileo idealize his inclines to conclude that an object in motion stays in motion until it is acted on by some force? 2. Give an example from everyday life to illustrate each of Newton’s laws.

33. Quiz Questions 1. According to Aristotle, where is the proper place of the classical elements earth and water; that is, what location do they seek? a. The center of Earth. b. The center of the Universe. c. The Heavens. d. Both a and b above. e. Both b and c above.

34. Quiz Questions 2. According to the principles of Aristotle, what part of the motion of an arrow that is fired vertically upward is natural motion and what part is violent motion? a. Both the upward and downward parts are natural motion. b. Both the upward and downward parts are violent motion. c. The upward part is natural motion and the downward part is violent motion. d. The upward part is violent motion and the downward part is natural motion. e. Neither the upward nor the downward parts are natural or violent motion.

35. Quiz Questions 3. If we drop a feather and a hammer at the same moment and from the same height, on Earth we see the hammer strike the ground first, whereas on the Moon both strike the ground at the same time. Why? a. The surface gravity of Earth is stronger than the gravity of the Moon. b. In strong gravity fields heavier objects fall faster. c. The is no air resistance effect on the Moon. d. Both a and b above. e. All of the above.

36. Quiz Questions 4. Which statement below best describes the difference between your mass and your weight? a. Your mass is constant and your weight varies throughout your entire life. b. Your mass is a measure of the amount of matter that you contain and your weight is a measure of the amount of gravitational pull that you experience. c. Your mass is a measure of your inertia, whereas your weight is a measure of the amount of material you contain. d. The only difference is the unit used to measure these two physical quantities. Mass is measured in kilograms and weight is measured in pounds. e. There is no difference between your mass and your weight.

37. Quiz Questions 5. Which of the following is true for an object in uniform circular motion? a. The velocity of the object is constant. b. The acceleration of the object is zero. c. The acceleration of the object is toward the center of motion. d. The angular momentum of the object is zero. e. The speed of the object is changing.

38. Quiz Questions 6. If a 1-kilogram rock and a 6-kilogram rock are dropped from the same height above the Moon's surface at the same time, they both strike the Moon's surface at the same time. The gravitational force with which the Moon pulls on the 6-kg rock is 6 times greater than on the 1-kg rock. Why then do the two rocks strike the Moon's surface at the same time? a. The acceleration of each rock is inversely proportional to its mass. b. The Moon's surface gravity is one-sixth the surface gravity at Earth's surface. c. The 1-kg rock is attracted less by the nearby Earth. d. Both a and b above. e. All of the above.

39. Quiz Questions 7. Why did Newton conclude that some force had to pull the Moon toward Earth? a. The Moon's orbital motion is a curved fall around Earth. b. The Moon has an acceleration toward Earth. c. The force and acceleration in Newton's second law must have the same direction. d. Both b and c above. e. All of the above.

40. Quiz Questions 8. What did Newton determine is necessary for the force exerted by the Sun on the planets to yield elliptical orbits? a. The force must be attractive. b. The force must be repulsive. c. The force must vary inversely with distance. d. The force must vary inversely with distance squared. e. Both a and d above.

41. Quiz Questions 9. Which of Kepler's laws of planetary motion is a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum? a. The planets orbit the Sun in elliptical paths with the Sun at one focus. b. A planet-Sun line sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time. c. The orbital period of a planet squared is proportional to its semimajor axis cubed. d. Both b and c above. e. All of the above.

42. Quiz Questions 10. How did Galileo slow down time in his falling body experiments? a. He performed the experiments near the speed of light. b. He measured the time objects took to fall through water. c. He used a stopwatch. d. He rolled objects down inclines at low angles. e. He began each fall with an upward toss.

43. Quiz Questions 11. Which of Newton's laws was first worked out by Galileo? a. The law of inertia. b. The net force on an object is equal to the product of its mass and its acceleration. c. The law of action and reaction. d. The law of universal mutual gravitation. e. Both c and d above.

44. Quiz Questions 12. According to Newton's laws, how does the amount of gravitational force on Earth by the Sun compare to the amount of gravitational force on the Sun by Earth? a. The amount of force on Earth by the Sun is greater by the ratio of the Sun's mass to Earth's mass. b. The amount of force on the Sun by Earth is negligible. c. The amount of force on the Sun by Earth is the same as the amount of force on Earth by the Sun. d. The amount of force on the Sun by Earth is greater by the ratio of the Sun's mass to Earth's mass. e. It is impossible to compare these two vastly different amounts of force.

45. Quiz Questions 13. Suppose that Planet Q exists such that it is identical to planet Earth yet orbits the Sun at a distance of 5 AU. How does the amount of gravitational force on Planet Q by the Sun compare to the amount of gravitational force on Earth by the Sun? a. The amount of the two forces is the same. b. The amount of force on Planet Q is one-fifth the force on Earth. c. The amount of force on Planet Q is 5 times the force on Earth. d. The amount of force on Planet Q is one twenty-fifth the force on Earth. e. The amount of force on Planet Q is 25 times the force on Earth.

46. Quiz Questions 14. Newton's form of Kepler's law can be written as: (Msun + Mplanet) Py2 = aAU3, where the masses of the Sun and planet are in units of solar masses, the period is in units of years, and the semimajor axis in astronomical units. Why is Kepler's form of his third law nearly identical to Newton's form? a. Both forms are very similar in that they have periods and semimajor axes in units of years and astronomical units respectively. b. The mass of the Sun plus the mass of a planet is nearly one. c. The mass of each planet is very large. d. Both b and c above. e. All of the above.

47. Quiz Questions 15. How does the orbital speed of an asteroid in a circular solar orbit with a radius of 4.0 AU compare to a circular solar orbit with a radius of 1.0 AU? a. The two orbital speeds are the same. b. The circular orbital speed at 4.0 AU is four times that at 1.0 AU. c. The circular orbital speed at 4.0 AU is twice that at 1.0 AU. d. The circular orbital speed at 4.0 AU is one-half that at 1.0 AU. e. The circular orbital speed at 4.0 AU is one-fourth that at 1.0 AU.

48. Quiz Questions 16. In the 1960s television program "Space 1999" an accident on the Moon causes the Moon to be accelerated such that it escapes Earth and travels into interstellar space. If you assume that the Moon's orbit was nearly circular prior to the accident, by what minimum factor is the Moon's orbital speed increased? a. The Moon's speed must be increased by a factor of 4 to escape Earth. b. The Moon's speed must be increased by a factor of pi to escape Earth. c. The Moon's speed must be increased by a factor of 2 to escape Earth. d. The Moon's speed must be increased by a factor of 1.4 to escape Earth. e. It cannot be determined from the given information.

49. Quiz Questions 17. Just after a alien spaceship travels past Earth at one-half the speed of light, a person on Earth sends a beam of light past the ship in the same direction that the ship is traveling. How fast does an alien on the ship measure the light beam to be traveling as it zips past the spaceship? a. At the speed of light, or 300,000 km/s. b. At one-half the speed of light, or 150,000 km/s. c. At one and one-half the speed of light, or 450,000 km/s. d. At twice the speed of light, or 600,000 km/s. e. The measured speed depends on the method of measurement.

50. Quiz Questions 18. Who first proposed that gravity is the bending of space-time due to the presence of matter? a. Tycho Brahe (1546 - 1601) b. Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630) c. Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) d. Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727) e. Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955)