GENETICS

1. GENETICS Cells and Heredity

2. CELL THEORY All organisms are made of one or more cells. The cell is the basic unit of all living things. All cells come from existing cells.

3. CELL SIZE Large cells Chicken egg – doesn’t need to take in more nutrients. Small cells Most cells are small because they need to take in nutrients and get rid of wastes. Volume of cell cannot be too large because the surface area will not be able to take in enough nutrients and expel waste fast enough.

4. SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO 8

6. EUKARYOTIC CELLS Cell Wall – a rigid structure that surrounds the cell membrane and provides support to the cell Cell membrane - protective layer that covers the cell’s surface and acts as a barrier to the outside environment. It also controls what goes in and comes out. Contains lipids (fat and cholesterol), proteins and phospholipids.

7. Cytoplasm – the fluid inside the cell Cytoskeleton – a web of proteins in the cytoplasm. Acts as a muscle and a skeleton. It helps some cells to move.

8. PARTS OF A CELL Organelles – structures that perform specific functions within the cell

9. NUCLEUS DNA – (deoxyribonucleic acid) genetic material that carries information needed to make new cells and new organisms; it is also passed on from parent cells to new cells and controls activities of the cell Nucleus – DNA is enclosed inside this organelle, it contains the genetic material to make cell proteins

10. NUCLEUS

11. NUCLEUS Nucleolus – a dark area inside the nucleus that stores materials that will be used to make ribosomes Ribosomes – organelles that make proteins; it is the smallest of all organelles. Proteins and RNA are made in the ribosomes (protein synthesis) Amino acids – building blocks of proteins; there are about 20 amino acids

12. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) – a system of folded membranes in which proteins, lipids, and other materials are made. Substances move through these passageways to get to other cell parts Most chemical reactions occur here Rough ER – covered in ribosomes and near the nucleus Smooth ER – no ribosomes, makes lipids and breaks down toxic materials that could damage the cell

14. MITOCHONDRIA Main power source of the cell Sugar is broken down to produce energy Energy release is stored as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) ATP is made in the inner membrane of the mitochondria Have its own DNA

16. CHLOROPLASTS Found in plants and algae Photosynthesis takes place here Have 2 membranes and their own DNA Contain chlorophyll (a green pigment) Chlorophyll traps energy of sunlight and uses it to make sugar The sugar is then used by mitochondria to make ATP

18. GOLGI COMPLEX Packages and distributes proteins Looks like ER Lipids and proteins from ER are delivered to Golgi complex Lipids and proteins are modified to do different jobs They are then packaged and pinched off to form a small bubble Bubbles get transported to other parts of the cell

21. VESICLES Vesicle – small sac that surrounds material to be moved into or out of the cell. Vesicles carry new protein from ER to Golgi complex

22. LYSOSOMES Vesicles that are responsible for digestion inside a cell Contains digestive enzymes Destroys worn out cell parts, get rid of wastes and protect cell from foreign invaders

23. VACUOLES A large vesicle Stores water Large in plants (if vacuoles lose water, the plant wilts)

24. ORGANIZATION OF LIVING THINGS Cell – (unicellular and multicellular) Tissue – group of cells that work together to perform a specific job (nerve tissue, muscle tissue, connective tissue and protective tissue) Organ – two or more groups of tissues working together to perform a function Organ system – a group of organs that work together to perform a function Organism – a living thing; anything that can carry out life processes independently

25. LEVELS OF CELLULAR ORGANIZATION

26. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Structure - the arrangement of parts in an organism Function – the special, normal, or proper activity of an organ or part

27. DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS Diffusion – the movement of particles from regions of higher density to regions of lower density Osmosis – the diffusion of water through a semipermeable(certain substances can pass through) membrane

30. Passive transport – the movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell Active transport – the movement of substances across the cell membrane that requires the cell to use energy Endocytosis – the process by which a cell membrane surrounds a particle and encloses the particle in a vesicle to bring the particle into the cell Exocytosis – the process in which a cell releases a particle by enclosing the particle in a vesicle that then moves to the cell surface and fuses with the cell membrane and releases it to the outside

33. CELL ENERGY Photosynthesis: the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to make food. Pigment – molecules that absorb light energy. Chlorophyll is the main pigment that gives the plant its color.

35. PHOTOSYNTHESIS

37. Cellular Respiration The process by which cells use oxygen to produce energy from food Takes place in the mitochondria

39. FERMENTATION The breakdown of food without the use of oxygen

41. CELL CYCLE Cell cycle – the life cycle of a cell DNA – (deoxyribonucleic acid) – the hereditary material of that controls all cell activities, including making new cells. Chromosomes – where DNA of a cell is organized; chromosomes are copied to ensure that each new cell is exactly the same as the parent cell

42. PROKARYOTIC CELLS Includes bacteria Have ribosomes and a single DNA molecule Divides by binary fission (splitting into 2 parts)

43. EUKARYOTIC CELLS Homologous chromosomes – chromosomes that have the same sequence of genes and the same structure Mitosis – in eukaryotic cells, a process of cell division that forms two new nuclei, each of which has the same number of chromosomes

46. MITOSIS Interphase – the cell grows and copies its organelles and chromosomes These copies are called chromatids Chromatids are held together by a centromere

47. 1.)Prophase – mitosis begins, nuclear membrane dissolves and chromosomes condense into rod-like structures, centrioles begins to migrate to opposite ends

48. 2.) metaphase The chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell. Homologous chromosomes pair up.

49. 3.) Anaphase The chromatids separate and move to opposite sides of the cell

50. 4.) Telophase Last stage of mitosis, a nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes, and the chromosomes unwind.