Case Study: The growth of the secondary sector in China - Causes

1. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Economic Change Case Study: The growth of the secondary sector in China - Causes The economic development of China is a recent phenomenon. In 1995, the GNP per capita was $620 but by 2005 this had risen to $1,700, nearly a threefold increase. Over the last 20 years it has become the world’s fourth largest economy and second largest manufacturer of goods. Physical Factors Raw materials – China has a great wealth of natural resources having vast reserves of coal, oil and natural gas – these are being used to fuel the industrial development of the country. Location – China’s position in the world is also beneficial for its development as it has developing markets all around it in South Korea, Taiwan and India. It is also on major trade routes. Human Factors Workforce – There is a plentiful supply of workers with a steady stream of people moving from rural areas to urban areas in search of work (modernisation of agriculture meaning less people need to be employed). It is estimated that 500,000 million people will leave the Chinese countryside in search of work over the next two decades. It is estimated that unemployment is currently 25% meaning that workers are among the most poorly paid in the world earning about 40p per hour – if they demand more work, there are plenty of people to take their jobs. Other Asian workers can earn ten times as much. All this means that factory owners in China have lower costs and can incest more in their business. Government policy – There has been a change in government policies and laws which used to stop people investing in China have been abolished and many companies from foreign countries have invested in China. For example, in Xiamen City, the Taiwanese company EUPA have a coffee machine factory which employs 23,000 workers. Education – Literacy levels have risen dramatically over the last 20 years (now 90%). China has both large numbers of unskilled workers willing to take on less appealing jobs and a growing number of highly skilled workers. For example, China now trains 60,000 engineers each year. Private enterprise – For many years, all manufacturing in China was state owned; nowadays 20% are privately owned and this figure is increasing. Energy – Since the 1990s China has been developing its energy base, with new hydro-electric and nuclear power stations. Infrastructure improvements – The government have built many new roads and allowed the building of many new factories. Globalisation – The shrinking of the world by the process known as globalisation has enabled companies in HICs to have goods assembled in LICs at a fraction of the price of the manufacturing process in the HIC. Goods can be transported easily around the world from where they are produced to where they are sold. China has a large workforce which can be employed cheaply.

2. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Economic Change Case Study: The growth of the secondary sector in China - Effects There have been economic, social and environmental effects of the growth. Some of these effects have been positive and others negative. Economic There has been an unprecedented level of growth in the Chinese economy over the past 20 years. Social There has been very little spending on social infrastructure. For example, government spending on health is lower now than in the 1980s although there has been increased input into education. Although schools produce good results, students are lectured at with one teacher to up to 80 students in one room. There are few laws to protect workers - particularly the millions of migrant labourers. Despite recent reforms, they are excluded from the health care / education systems, live in appalling overcrowded conditions and are routinely exposed to some of the most exploitative working conditions. They are forced to work long periods of time, in hazardous conditions for low pay. Many managers withhold pay for two to three months to ensure that they hold on to their workforce which is in short supply due to the amount of jobs which are available in the rapidly industrialising country. Environmental Rapid industrial growth in China has had a major impact on the environment locally, nationally and globally. A major problem is that 75% of China’s energy is still produced from coal. According to a number of research projects, 16 of the world’s 20 most polluted cities are in China. The most polluted city in the world is Linfen in China’s inland Shanxi province. The hills around Linfen are dotted with coal mines (legal and illegal) and the air is filled with the smoke of burning coal. Local residents do not bother to hang out coal because it turns black before it is dry. There is also arsenic in the local water supply. It is estimated that 3 million people are being affected by the pollution. In China there are 760,000 recorded deaths a year from air and water pollution. China already produces more carbon dioxide than any other country and it is estimated that by 2025 it will surpass the USA in the production of greenhouse gases (although this would not be the case if the figure was calculated per head of population in which case it would still be below countries such as the USA and UK). 80% of rivers are below the standard for fishing and 90% of underground water in urban areas is polluted. The government does recognise the environmental issues and is taking steps to address these – setting targets to increase renewable energy and reduce energy consumption and spending money to cope with the problems.

3. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Economic Change Case Study: Factors influencing the location of different industries Primary Industry – China clay extraction in Cornwall • More than 120 million tonnes of china clay has been extracted from the area and reserves should last another 100 years. Kaolin (as china clay is also known) is used to make porcelain and by many other industries including the paper industry. The key factors that have made the industry successful are: • Kaolin is only found in the south-west of England. • The pottery manufacturer Josiah Wedgwood based in Stoke-on-Trent formed the Cornish Clay company and this meant that there was a market for kaolin. By 1860, 65,000 tonnes was being mined each year and much of it for the Wedgwood factory. • It was possible to transport the raw material to the factory where it was then made into the finished product. China clay was moved by tramway and trains to the ports of Charlestown, Pentewan and Par on the south coast of Cornwall. Ships then took the raw material to Liverpool where it was then transported by barge along the Trent and Mersey canal to Winsford in Cheshire and then by packhorse the final 30 miles to Stoke-on-Trent to be made into porcelain. The length and difficulty of the transport process underlines that access to raw materials is the crucial factor for primary industries. • By 1910 the industry was producing 1 million tonnes a year and most of the production was now for the paper industry which has continued to be the case. Secondary Industry – Why did Toyota locate at Burnaston near Derby? • The area has a tradition in car manufacturing and this means that there are many suppliers or of component parts and engineering components. • The location on the edge of the city – a greenfield site with ample room for expansion and a large flat area of land. • An attractive village location for managerial workers to live and the Peak District National Park nearby for leisure activities. • Excellent transport routes that allow easy transportation of parts and the finished product throughout the UK. • Derbyshire County Council offered to buy a £20 million stake in the company and also pledged to improve the transport infrastructure by upgrading the A50 to dual carriageway. Tertiary Industry – Why did the David Lloyd Health Club locate on Hatfield Business Park? • Modern building design to attract health club clients and an attractive landscape area to attract workers. • Excellent transport system including wide roads, bus route, cycle and pedestrian lanes. Very close to junctions 3 and 4 of the A1(M) giving easy access to large numbers of potential users. • Nearby village of Salisbury with lots of executive and middle class housing including modern flats used by young, single people. Hertfordshire University within walking distance. Lots of other large firms on the business park including T-Mobile. Next to a large indoor shopping centre (The Galleria). All of these factors would mean large numbers of potential clients – people living nearby or people able to visit after work, after shopping, etc.

4. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Economic Change Case Study: Deindustrialisation in rural areas – benefits and costs • Extraction of coal in South Wales • Left the area with many waste heaps which have left the land scarred and are potentially dangerous. • This was illustrated in 1966 with the Aberfan disaster when a landslide occurred from a coal waste heap after heavy rainfall. Tonnes of material fell onto the village school killing 144 people, 116 of them children. • After this disaster, coal waste heaps have been made safer by regrading them and landscaping them. Many of them now being used as agricultural land and visitors to the area would be aware of its industrial past. • Open cast mining in Northumberland • In 1957 the National Coal Board bought Bays Leap Farm, Town House and Heddon Mill in Northumberland so that they could start open cast mining in the area. • The 25 hectare site was excavated to a depth of 70m to extract 2.5 million tonnes of coal. The mining stopped in 1965 and the land was returned to farm land. • Extraction of sand and gravel around Reading in Berkshire • Many dangerous water filled quarries were created through this process and are now being used in the following ways: Copthorne Hall next to a 10 acre lake with many sporting facilities including water sports; Green Park which is a science park covering 70 hectares and employing 7,000; Madejski football stadium built on waste tip which was an old gravel quarry and the site cost £1; watersports centre for use by the general public and a former gravel quarry now agricultural land. • Eden Project at site of old china clay pit in Cornwall • An old china clay pit in Cornwall has been redeveloped after mineral extraction and is now known as the Eden Project. • The pit is 60m deep and covers an area equivalent to 35 football pitches. • The pit has been totally transformed into a tourist attraction with landscaped walks, a huge diversity of plants and two enormous pods. • The pods provide a very different experience: one is an Equatorial rainforest which has a wide variety of plants from the Equatorial biome and the other is the Mediterranean biome. • The whole project is run in a sustainable way and there are many information boards that provide information about the project – much of the energy for the project is produced through sustainable means. • There is a building called The Core which teaches people in a user-friendly way how to be more aware of the damage we are doing to the planet.

5. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Economic Change Case Study: How has Durham’s settlement function changed over time. Monks looking after St Cuthbert’s body arrived in Durham around 995 and settled – a church was built and his body was a magnet for visitors. In 1072, the Normans built a castle in Durham to keep the natives in order and in 1093 the cathedral began to be built – it was completed in 1133. In the Middle Ages the centre of Durham was the peninsula where the cathedral and castle were to be found. Industries included wool and leather. In the 1920s, science laboratories were built and later in the century, significant expansion of the university took place. Administrative offices were established with the national savings office in 1961, the new county hall built in 1963 and a magistrates court in 1964. The castle and cathedral were declared a world heritage site in 1987. In the 14th and 15th centuries, schools were established and although Henry VIII’s men smashed Cuthbert’s shrine in 1538, the schools remained. The industrial revolution in the 19th century had little impact on Durham, but the population rose significantly in the early part of the 19th century. Durham prison was built in 1820 and in 1832, Durham University was established as the country’s third university.

6. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Settlement Change Case Study: Counter-urbanisation in North-East England Newcastle Upon Tyne. The town of Hexham in the south Tyne Valley. People have moved out of the urban area of Newcastle to locate in locations such as Hexham and Morpeth where they feel there will be a better quality of life. The advantages and disadvantages already described are evident in this example.

7. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Settlement Change Case Study: Rural Depopulation in Areas of The British Isles Specific effects of rural depopulation on areas of The British Isles would be: Scottish Highlands – Ageing Population Decline in population between the years of 1985 and 2005 for people aged 40 and under. South West England – Loss of Post Offices In 2001 there were 600,000 people living in remote rural areas and 45% of these people did NOT live within 4km of a Post Office. Many Post Offices are closing in rural areas as they are not profitable. In Cornwall, 25% of Post Offices are set to close with a figure of 22% in Devon. The figure for expected closures across the UK is lower at 18%. South West England – Distance from Hospitals In Cornwall, the only major hospital is situated in Plymouth which is actually in Devon! If you are a patient suffering with cancer, you would have to travel up to 100 miles for treatment. Lake District – School Closures The decline in rural services has seen the closure of many primary schools such as Satterthwaite and Rushland School and Lowick School, both near to Ulverston in the Lake District. These schools closed in 2006.

8. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Settlement Change Case Study: Effects of Deindustrialisation in Liverpool The urbanisation and expansion of Liverpool were both largely brought about by the city's status as a major port. By the 18th century, trade from the West Indies, Ireland and mainland Europe coupled with close links with the Atlantic Slave trade furthered the economic expansion of Liverpool. By the early 19th century, 40% of the world's trade passed through Liverpool's docks, contributing to Liverpool's rise as a major city. The construction of major buildings reflected this wealth. In 1830, Liverpool and Manchester became the first cities to have an intercity rail link, through the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.

9. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Settlement Change Case Study: Effects of Deindustrialisation in Liverpool From the mid-1970s onwards Liverpool's docks and traditional manufacturing industries went into sharp decline. The advent of new techniques for transporting goods meant that the city's docks became largely obsolete. By the early 1980s unemployment rates in Liverpool were once again among the highest in the UK, standing at 17% by January 1982 - although this was just over half of the level of unemployment that was affecting the city in an economic downturn 50 years previously. Extensive areas of the city centre reflected the problems of deindustrialisation with empty factories, unused land, etc.

10. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Settlement Change Case Study: Effects of Deindustrialisation in Liverpool Tourism in Liverpool Capitalising on the popularity of 1960s rock groups, such as The Beatles, as well as the city's world-class art galleries, museums and landmarks, tourism has also become a significant factor in Liverpool's economy. In 2007, the city celebrated the 800th anniversary of the foundation of the borough of Liverpool, for which a number of events were planned. Liverpool was a joint European Capital for Culture for 2008.

11. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Settlement Change Case Study: Effects of Deindustrialisation in Liverpool Construction in Liverpool In 2004, property developer Grosvenor started the ‘Paradise Project’, a £920 m development centred on Paradise Street, which involved the most significant changes to Liverpool's city centre since the post-war reconstruction. Renamed 'Liverpool ONE', the centre opened in May 2008 with many high value stores such as the Apple Store. Spearheaded by the multi-billion Liverpool ONE development, regeneration has continued on an unprecedented scale through to the start of the early 2010s in Liverpool.

12. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Settlement Change Case Study: Rapid urban growth in Cairo. Cairo is the largest city in Egypt as well as its capital and home to more than 25% of the country’s population. It is now one of the twenty most populated areas in the world. The growth is a direct result of people migrating there from rural areas and from increased life expectancy that went up from 41 years in 1960 to 70 years in 2010. Noise Pollution Noise pollution from the millions of vehicles, loud speakers calling Muslims to prayer and the noise of nightclubs on the River Nile cause many problems for the residents of Cairo. The noise is well above acceptable levels according to the World Health Organisation. It is particularly bad in the Saraya al Gezira district where the residents also have to cope with the nightclub boats on the river. Their Nileside rooms have noise from the nightclubs and their front rooms have the noise of the city. • Air Pollution • Air pollution is caused by the transport and industry. It is predicted that because of the poor air quality half a million of Cairo’s residents will develop serious health problems which will result in premature death. In the industrial quarter Shoubra el Kheima, where many of the poor people live close to their work, 37% of the residents suffer from lung problems. • Children in Cairo are faced with these specific problems: • The sun’s rays are blocked by smog on the most polluted days which mean that many duffer from a deficiency of vitamin D. • The lead concentrations in the air from the lead smelters at Shoubra el Kheima cause a loss of intelligence, at an average of 4 IQ points. • The concentration of lead in the air has also caused an 80% rise in tooth decay. • A black cloud sometimes covers Cairo in a haze. It first appeared in 1999 and is most common in October and November. At this time of year straw is burnt after rice has been harvested adding to the already polluted air.

13. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Settlement Change Case Study: Rapid urban growth in Cairo. Land Pollution There is also a problem with land pollution. The huge population produces 10,000 tonnes of solid waster a day. Only 60% is collected; the rest is left to rot in streets, canals, drains and neighbourhood dump sites. Rats and other vermin live in plague populations on the waste dumps. Diseases are carried by the rats and can easily affect the inhabitants of Helwan. There are also large toxic stockpiles of hazardous waste, as much as 50,000 tonne, from industry which has accumulated in Helwan, Shoubra and Embaba. Water Pollution Water pollution is caused by both domestic and industrial waste water. Many small streams and old irrigation canals around Cairo are filled with plastic bags full of solid waste and are used for sewage disposal. 80% of industrial waste water is discharged untreated into the Nile. The can be as much as 2.5 million litres a day. The effect of this is that Egypt's coastal fishing and tourist industry is being damaged. An example of this is the Shoubra el Kheima district to the north of the city which discharges its waste water straight into drains which are already heavily polluted and which flow into the Mediterranean. It is estimated that 23% of the population of Cairo does not have access to a fresh water supply and 25% is not connected to the public sewage system. Only 15% of raw sewage is treated properly; 60% is carried raw through open canals to the Mediterranean. Housing Problems Due to the acute shortage of housing approximately 60% of Cairo’s population live in shanty type dwellings. The most famous of these is the ‘City of the Dead’ or Arafa (cemetery) as it is called by the local residents. This is just one of the five cemeteries which used to be on the outskirts of the city in the Moqattam Hills but because of rapid urbanisation they are now part of the city. The four mile long cemetery in eastern Cairo is where people live and work among their dead ancestors. People live here illegally as it gives them shelter and they have nowhere else to go. The government has provided some electricity and water standpipes but there is no connection to the sewage system. It is not known how many people live among the gravestones here, but estimates range from 30,000 to 1 million. The government has responded to the housing problem by building cities on the edge of Cairo in the desert, 6th of October and 10th of Ramadan, but many residents want to stay in Cairo where their jobs are. One expert has estimated that all of the cities in the desert built over the last 25 years are equivalent to meet the needs of six months of natural growth for Cairo. Another effect of the housing shortage is that young professional cannot marry because strong social rules say that couples can not wed until the man can provide a home.

14. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Population Change Case Study: Population distribution in China.

15. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Population Change Case Study: Population distribution in China. The sparsest populated areas are the mountains over 2000m and the desert areas and these are all to be found in the west of China. The most densely populated areas are the coastal areas and fertile floodplains of the major rivers found in the east. China has a diverse climate and the fact that the large cities of Beijing and Shanghai do not get extreme climates is one reason for their continued growth. There are no large settlements in the arid desert areas of the very wet and cold mountains. Human factors are important and the rich industrial areas have higher population densities. These areas are accessible with good communication links which has encouraged growth. The level of economic development decreases as you go west. In the 1970s the Chinese Government introduced a strategy for coastal development and this lead to rapid economic development along the south-east coastal area.

16. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Population Change Case Study: Population distribution in the UK • Human Factors - High • Aberdeen – due to North Sea oil industry. • Newcastle / Middlesbrough – ports. • South East including London – magnet for modern industries which attract workers. • North West – old industrial areas have maintained high population after the industries have gone due to well-established infrastructure. • Physical Factors – High • Coastal towns like Brighton and Bournemouth – retired people attracted here as they are warmer than elsewhere in UK! • South Wales – presence of natural resources like coal, iron ore and limestone that led to growth of manufacturing. • Physical Factors – Low • Scottish highlands – Weather is cold, soil is infertile and transport links are poor. • East Anglia – very fertile land which is needed for agriculture. • Central Wales – cold, wet and hilly area which is remote meaning it is difficult to transport goods.

17. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Population Change Case Study: Methods used by China to decrease birth rate. What has China done to reduce its birth rate (and why)? In 1979 China had a quarter of the world’s population. Two thirds of its population was under the age of 30 and the largest cohort born in the 1950s and 1960s were entering their reproductive years. The government felt action was needed! Fertility Rate 1970: Average = 5.8. 2008: Average = 2. Demographers = ideal BR 16.7 per 1,000 (or 1.7 children per family). One Chinese official said the one-child policy has prevented 300 million births, the equivalent of the population of Europe. The reduction of population has helped pull people out of poverty and been a factor in China’s phenomenal economic growth. • Incentives: • Couples with one child were given a ‘one-child certificate’ entitling them to: • cash bonuses • longer maternity leave • free education • free medical care • free child care • preferential housing treatment • Disincentives: • Couples who had more than one child lost privileges, could be sacked and also received heavy fines. • People were monitored by the ‘granny police’ – women who made regular household visits to closely monitor what was taking place (including contraceptive methods being used!). Unmarried young people were encouraged to postpone marriage and women with unauthorised pregnancies were encouraged to have abortions! Recent Changes – In rural areas, a second child is generally allowed after five years if the first child was a girl! For urban residents, the policy continues to be strictly enforced with only one or two exceptions such as if the first child has a disability.

18. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Population Change Case Study: Methods used by China to decrease birth rate.

19. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Population Change Case Study: Methods used by Singapore to increase birth rate. The approach of the Singapore government has been to introduce the incentives below that link to a ‘Three or More’ policy:

20. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Population Change Case Study: Benefits and problems of Japan’s ageing population. The advantages and disadvantages of an ageing population in Japan. • Japan’s proportion of elderly is the highest in the world. In 2006, 20% of Japan’s people were 65 or older – this compares to 16% for the UK. • The birth rate hit a record low in 2005 and unless it rises significantly, the population will shrink. • Japan’s population is ageing more rapidly than any other country. • The % of economically active people is falling. • Japan’s pensioners are spending rapidly in what has been called a ‘grey boom’. They are less anxious about the future and are spending on a range of luxury goods. Social attitudes have changed and they are less concerned about leaving money for their children and all of this spending boosts the economy. • There has been a technological explosion – there are an array of gadgets for people worried about elderly relatives that enable people to check up on elderly relatives to ensure they are well.

21. Unit Three – The Human Environment – Population Change Case Study: Benefits and problems of Japan’s ageing population. The advantages and disadvantages of an ageing population in Japan. Workforce – Businesses already face difficulties in finding new recruits and the labour force in the 15-24 bracket has shrunk rapidly. In 1990, there were six people of working age for each pensioner and by 2025 it is projected it will be only two people of working age. One solution to the shortage of workers is to bring in migrant labourers – there are now 2 million foreigners living in Japan and 200,000 of them illegally! The IT sector in particular has been looking beyond Japan. Other solutions have been to ask men to work beyond retirement and to increase the historically low number of women working. Pensions – Pension reforms were introduced by the government in 2005 which included the age of retirement rising from 60 to 65 and higher pension contributions from the employees, employers and the government. Health care – Japan has a long tradition of honouring the old. About 93% of people over 60 live at home, but this is changing with more people living in nursing homes. Paying for care for the elderly accounts for half of Japan’s health budget and with an ageing population, costs will rise. In 2000, a tax on over 40s was introduced to pay for equipment such as wheelchairs and to send carers to private homes. In 2006, incentives were added to encourage more independent living at home. Finally in 2008, a new health insurance scheme was launched for over 75s that saw incentives for hospitals to limit patient stays to less than 100 days – it has caused a storm and been nicknamed the ‘hurry up and die’ scheme!

22. Unit Three – The Human Environment – A Tourist’s World Case Study: Development of EU tourist resort linked to the Butler model. Exploration – 18th Century Fashionable for rich people to have holidays at the seaside – bathing in sea to cure diseases. Involvement – 1846 Transport developments made Blackpool more accessible and particularly the first railway branch line being opened from Poulton to Blackpool in 1846. Development – 1870s to WWI Workers granted annual holidays and thousands went to Blackpool to take advantage of the amenities created such as piers, amusement arcades and Blackpool Tower. Consolidation – 1918-1939 Laws improving pay meant people had more money and they came to spend it in Blackpool. Population reached 150,000 and it was one of Europe's leading coastal resorts. Stagnation – WWII to 1980s Package holidays and cheaper air travel meant people could go overseas for sun. Decline then Rejuvenation – 1987 to Today Currently between decline and rejuvenation. Visitor numbers / spend have declined, but new development has taken place including the development of conference facilities and casinos.

25. Unit Three – The Human Environment – A Tourist’s World Case Study: Benefits and problems of tourism in Malham, Yorkshire Dales. Social Effects – More demand for local services with the bus service to Skipton more frequent in the summer months due to the fact that tourists use it. Social Effects – Visitors tend to park in narrow streets causing congestion. Social Effects – Appearance of village harmed through lots of billboards to appeal to tourists – linked to this, some pubs have became themed and less authentic! Economic Effects – In 1991, 55% of houses in Malham were used for holidays. Demand for second homes has led to dramatic rises in house prices. Economic Effects - Tourism provides new job opportunities in an area suffering from a loss of jobs in farming – eg farmers opening campsites on their land. Economic Effects – Money from cafes and shops – this income is seasonal though! Environmental Effects – In 1994 the creation of a new open access area and new footpaths means locals and tourists have more rights to roam – this causes some problems with people not staying on the paths and dogs worrying the sheep of farmers. Environmental Effects – Malham is in the Yorkshire Dales National Park and this means development is restricted and has to be in keeping with the local environment – building in stone. Environmental Effects – Erosion of footpaths due to between 75,000 and 100,000 visitors each year.

26. Unit Three – The Human Environment – A Tourist’s World Case Study: Explain the benefits and problems of tourism for Machu Picchu, Peru. Hotels such as the Sanctuary lodge at the entrance of Machu Picchu are owned by overseas companies. Much of the profit from tourism goes overseas. The best paid jobs in foreign owned hotels are often given to foreigners. Much of the profit from tourism goes overseas. Garbage is thrown into rivers such as the Urubamba or left close to the trail. Damage to the environment. 500 tourists a day walk the Inca Trail and in 1998, 53,500 tourists walked the trail that year. Damage to the environment. Tourists pick orchids which grow among the ruins and along the side of the trail. Damage to the environment. Local villagers see western visitors and wish to start to dress like them. Loss of local culture / identity.

27. Unit Three – The Human Environment – A Tourist’s World Case Study: Explain the benefits and problems of tourism for Machu Picchu, Peru. Tourists spend money and a handicraft market for tourists has appeared at the local market in Pisac on a Sunday morning. Money generated for local economy. Porters on the Inca Trail are paid $10 a day and some companies also request they are tipped. Money generated for local economy. No plastic bottles are allowed on the trail since 2000 – only canteens. Avoid damage to the environment. The number of tourists is now limited to 500 people per day. Avoid damage to the environment. Machu Picchu has been designated as a World Heritage Site. Avoid damage to the environment. Since 2000, porters have been limited to carrying no more than 25kg (before this it would be up to 50kg). Ensure the welfare of local people.

28. Unit Three – The Human Environment – A Tourist’s World Case Study: Eselenkei Conservation Area in Maasai Mara in Kenya.