野生動物福祉（1）：野生動物的管理 Wild animal welfare (1): management of wildlife

野生動物福祉（1）：野生動物的管理Wild animal welfare (1): management of wildlife 模組23 Module 23

本模組可讓你This module will enable you to • 定義和瞭解何謂野生動物的管理和福祉 Define and understand what is meant by wild animal management & welfare • 界定會影響到下列情況的福祉問題 Identify welfare issues affecting • 因為人為侵犯了自由生活野生動物 free-living wild animals, because of human encroachment • 豢養野生動物 captive wild animals • 界定這些福祉問題可能的解決方案。 Identify potential solutions to these welfare issues

定義：野生動物 Definition: Wild animal • 生活於未受到人類馴化的野生狀態下，但 ‘ Living in a wild and undomesticated state outside of human influence’? But… • 受人類豢養和使用的野生動物者除外 Excludes wild animals in captivity, and wild animals used by humans • 只有極為少數的動物是在人類的影響範圍之外。 Very few animals outside human influence • 更佳的定義 Better definition • 自由生活和受豢養的動物 Free-living & captive animals • 通常是指生活於野外不受人為干預的物種， Species typically lives in the wild without human intervention • 其雙親和祖先不是有選擇性地被繁殖馴服或受到驅使。Parents and forebears not selectively bred for docility or ease of handling

野生動物的福祉Wild animal welfare • 各別動物的福祉 Individual welfare • 身體、心靈、天性（參見模組1） Body, mind, nature (see Module 1) • 群體的福祉 Group welfare • 反映集體成員的福祉 Reflects the welfare of the group members • 對成員的定義和評估 Defined & evaluated in terms of members • 所有經歷過的共同經驗，如疾病、捕食、競爭和棲息地喪失等。 All undergo common experiences e.g. disease, predation, competition, habitat loss etc. • 群體福祉的評估（模組8） Group welfare assessment (Module 8)

影響到野生動物福祉的因素Factors affecting wild animal welfare • 自然發生 Naturally occurring • 如疾病和掠食等。e.g. disease, predation etc. • 人為因素 Anthropogenic • 人為因素直接或間接起因於人為的行動，如棲息地的喪失和狩獵等。 Factors that results directly or indirectly from human actions • e.g. habitat loss, hunting etc. • 本模組著重於人為的問題，Module focuses on anthropogenic issues • 人類的行為導致嚴重的福祉問題！ Humans responsible for most severe welfare issues!

影響到自由生活野生動物的福祉問題Welfare issues affecting free-living wild animals • WSPA調查2006 WSPA survey 2006 • 在撒哈拉以南的非洲和拉丁美洲中影響到自由生活野生動物的福祉問題。 Welfare issues affecting free-living wild animals in Sub-Saharan Africa & Latin America • 界定出3類 Identified 3 categories • 誘捕、狩獵和捕魚（模組24） Trapping, hunting & fishing (Module 24) • 野生動物或其肢體的交易（模組24） Trade in live wild animals or their parts (Module 24) • 人為侵害 Human encroachment • 適用於世界各地所有的物種 Applicable to all species throughout the world

人為侵害Human encroachment • 主要的福祉問題影響到野生動物嗎？ Is the main welfare issue affecting wild animals • 「負面的影響就是人類的出現和活動影響到野生動物，而導致其他的福祉問題，如野生動物狩獵和交易。」 “The negative impact that human presence & activities have on wild animal welfare, which are responsible for other welfare issues, e.g. hunting and trade in wild animals” • 幾乎影響到某些地區的所有野生動物。 Affects almost all wild animals at some point

人為侵害Human Encroachment • 4個廣泛而互相影響的類別： Four broad & inter-related categories: • 棲息地的喪失 Habitat loss • 污染 Pollution • 人類的出現 Human presence • 野生動物族群數量的管理 Management of wild animal populations

侵害-棲息地的喪失 Encroachment – Habitat loss • 「動物所生存其自然棲息地，因為人類的行動而導致棲息地的喪失或惡化。」‘The loss or degradation of the natural habitat in which animals live, because of a range of human actions’ • 人類居住空間的擴大 Expanding human habitation • 藉由建築物、道路和圍籬干擾野生動物的棲息地 Disruption of wildlife habitat by buildings, roads & fences • 天然資源的開採 Exploitation of natural resources • 野生動物棲息地和家畜放牧的養殖 Cultivation of wildlife habitat & livestock grazing

侵害-棲息地的喪失 Encroachment – Habitat loss • 對各別動物的影響 • Effects on individual animals • 行為、社會隔離和破壞養殖等困擾帶來的痛苦和不安。 Suffering & distress caused by disturbance of behaviour, social isolation, disruption of breeding etc. • 車輛碰撞與放牧家畜競爭食物所造成的痛苦、傷害和死亡。 Pain, injury & death, caused collisions with vehicles etc, & competition with livestock for food

侵害-污染Encroachment - Pollution • 「污染物進入空氣、水源和土壤中，外加有光害、噪音和熱害。」‘The release of contaminants into the air, water & soil, plus excess light, sound & heat’ • 家庭和工業垃圾 Household & industrial rubbish • 工業和家庭的化學物排放於水、空氣和土壤中。 Industrial & household chemicals in water, air & soil • 光、噪音和熱污染造成的困擾。 Disruption caused by light, noise & heat pollution

侵害-污染Encroachment - Pollution • 對各別動物的影響：Effect on individual animals: • 痛苦、傷害和不安的原因是：Pain, injury, disease & distress caused by: • 吃進垃圾或被垃圾所困 Ingestion & being trapped by rubbish • 吃進和吸收化學物 Ingestion & absorption of chemicals • 因為光、噪音和熱對正常行為的困擾。 Disruption of normal behaviour due to light, noise & heat

侵害：人為接觸Encroachment: Human contact • 「野生動物跟人類和馴化的動物接觸可能導致不良的影響。」‘Negative effect that contact with human & domestic animals can have on wildlife welfare’ • 跟人類和馴化動物的直接接觸。 Direct contact with humans & domestic animals • 研究實務 Research practices • 生態旅遊 Ecotourism

侵害：人為接觸Encroachment: Human contact • 對各別動物的影響：Effect on individual animals: • 疾病和寄生蟲的傳染 Disease & parasite transmission • 衝突所扮演的角色 Role of conflict • 乾旱所扮演的角色 Role of drought • 來自馴化動物攻擊所造成的不安、恐懼和傷害 Distress, fear & injury from • domestic animal attacks • 不當的研究方法 poor research methods • 觀光客的出現 presence of tourists

侵害：管理Encroachment: Management • 「因為人為的侵害需控制影響到野生動物族群數量的人為干預。」‘Human interventions needed to control wild animal populations due to human encroachment’ • 管理促成： Management can cause: • 棲息地的喪失 Habitat loss • 人為障礙： Man-made barriers • 設立自然公園和獵物保留區 Creation national parks & game reserves • 人類跟野生動物間的衝突 Conflict between humans & wild animals • 外來物種的引進 Introduction of alien species

侵害：管理Encroachment: Management • 對各別動物的影響：Effect on individual animals: • 跟疼痛、痛苦和不安的相關人為方法有： Pain, suffering & distress associated with methods of: • 豢養 Capture • 殺戮 Killing • 遷徙 Relocation • 避孕 Contraception

對侵害的可能解決方案Potential solutions to encroachment • 人類的社區和土地的使用： Human communities and land use: • 廣泛討論 Broadening the debate • 讓所有的「利害關係人」加入討論 Involve all ‘stakeholders’ in the debate • 避免野生動物棲息地的分割 Avoid sub-division of wildlife habitat • 藉由當地的社區來增進環境容忍度 Increased tolerance by local communities • 人類對野生動物的保護 Protection of humans from wild animals • 野生動物族群數量的控制 Wild animal population control

對侵害的可能解決方案Potential solutions to encroachment • 跟環境的互動 Interaction with the environment: • 建構「對野生動物友善的」環境結構 Building of ‘wildlife-friendly’ structures • 避免污染 Preventing pollution • 人性化的研究方法 Humane research methods • 隔離豢養馴化和野生動物 Keep domestic & wild animals separate

豢養野生動物的福祉問題Welfare issues of captive wild animals • 飼主所直接主宰的福祉 Welfare directly controlled by those that keep them • 動物園 Zoos • 救援和復健 Rescue & rehabilitation • 外來寵物 Exotic pets • 養殖如鴕鳥和鱷魚 Farming e.g. ostriches, alligators • 工作用動物如大象 Working e.g. elephants • 五項自由的應用 Five Freedoms apply

方法介紹 Method of presentation 餵食頻率 Feeding frequency 營養均衡 Nutritional balance 衛生 Hygiene 福祉問題1：提供食物和水（基本的需求） Welfare issues 1: Provision of food & water (basic need)

福祉問題2：提供適當的環境Welfare issues 2: Provision of suitable environment • 提供舒適安逸的適當環境條件： Appropriate environmental conditions for comfort and well-being: • 籬笆內外需提供遮蔽： Inside & outside enclosure must offer shelter: • 籬笆和障礙物不得傷害到動物 Enclosure & barriers must not harm animals • 衛生和生物需求間的平衡 Balance of hygiene vs. biological needs

福祉問題3：提供健康的動物相關的健康照護 Welfare issues 3: Provision of health animal health care • 下列事項的例行觀察記錄：Routine observations & records of: • 條件、健康和行為 Condition, health & behaviour • 籬笆大小和設計需避免動物受到傷害 Enclosure size & design must avoid injury • 籬笆需保護動物而免於：Enclosure must protect animals from: • 掠食者的侵襲 Predators • 滋生和傳播疾病和寄生蟲 Build-up & spread of disease & parasites • 需提供適當的獸醫照護 Appropriate veterinary care must be available

福祉問題4：正常行為的表達 Welfare issues 4: Expression of normal behaviour • 瞭解生物、棲息地和畜牧上的需求。 Understand biology, habitat & husbandry needs • 需滿足豢養的動物這些需求。 Life in captivity must meet these needs! • 鼓勵動物表達其物種特有的行為，將異常行為降到最低。 Encourage species-specific normal behaviour & minimise abnormal behaviour

福祉問題：保護免於恐懼不安Welfare issues: Protection from fear & distress • 由合格有經驗的人員進行照護 Cared for by qualified & experienced staff • 謹慎處理避免不適、不安或受傷 Handling avoids discomfort, distress or injury • 適當的收容： Appropriate housing: • 增進安全感 Promote feeling of safety & security • 收容群居性的動物 Housing social species together • 提供可逃脫的空間 Providing a place to escape • 避免未決的衝突（如隔離雄性動物） Preventing unresolved conflict (e.g. separating male animals)

環境富化Environmental enrichment • 「如何改變豢養動物的環境而有利於棲息的動物？」“How environments of captive animals can be changed for the benefit of its inhabitants” • 富化的目標：Goals of enrichment: • 增加正向自然行為的頻率和多樣性 Increase frequency & diversity of positive natural behaviours • 減少異常行為的發生 Decrease the occurrence of abnormal behaviour • 環境運用最大化 Maximise utilisation of the environment • 增加動物面對豢養或野生動物其挑戰的能力。 Increase the animal’s ability to cope with the challenges of captivity or the wild

富化的種類Type of enrichment • 取決於豢養動物的理由 Depends on reason for keeping animals • 長期和短期的豢養居留動物 Long-term vs. short-term residents • 長期的豢養居留動物： Long-term residents: • 複製自然棲息地的特點=正向幫助的福祉 Reproduce salient + features of natural habitat = positive welfare • 降低或消除負向影響的特點=負向福祉問題 Reduce or eliminate salient features = negative welfare

富化的種類Type of enrichment • 短期居留動物： Short-term residents: • 複製自然棲息地所有的特點 Reproduce all salient features of natural habitat! • 包括負面影響而用於增進動物被釋放後的生存能力 Including negative aspects to improve survivability following release • 極端氣候、高溫的不適、變動和分佈廣泛的食物來源、有毒食病原體和掠食者。 Climatic extremes, thermal discomfort, variable and widely dispersed food sources, sub-toxic food, pathogens & predators • 需得到動物保護法的允許 Must be permitted by animal protection laws

增進存活能力Increased survivability • 生存者的技能： Survivor skills: • 方向感 Orientation • 進食和覓食 Feeding and foraging • 取得適當的地方來休息和睡眠 Obtaining suitable places to rest & sleep • 物種間的互動（如掠食者）Interspecies interactions (e.g. predators) • 物種內部的互動（如繁殖）Intraspecific interactions (e.g. breeding) • 放歸準則（如IUCN） Reintroduction guidelines exist (e.g. IUCN) • 「放歸的動物需隨時進行最大照護。」“The welfare of animals for release should be of paramount concern through all stages”

動物園和野生公園Zoos & Parks • 現代動物園的功能： Functions of modern zoos: • 教育、研究、保育和娛樂 Education, research, conservation & entertainment

動物園Zoos • 對福祉的密切關心 Serious concerns about welfare • 符合五項自由的條件 Conditions that don’t meet Five Freedoms

豢養野生動物及其倫理Captive wild animals & ethics • 倫理和福祉重要問題（大部份的動物園）：Ethical & welfare concerns (mostly zoos): • 豢養環境、缺乏動物需求的相關知識 Captive environment; lack of knowledge of needs • 成本：動物各別豢養經過妥協的福祉 Costs: Compromised welfare of captive individuals • 好處：藉由研究、教育和放歸來進行保育。 Benefits: Conservation through research, education, conservation & re-introduction • 理由：最高標準的居所和照顧。 Justification: Highest standards of housing & care. 促進教育、研究和保育。 Promotion of education, research & conservation

救援和復健Rescue & rehabilitation • 許多的野生動物需要救援和復健 Many wild animals need rescue & rehabilitation • 豢養野生動物是困難的事！ Keeping wild animals in captivity is difficult! • 只有在下列的情況下才能夠豢養：Only do it if: • 動物受傷需接受治療讓其復原 Injuries etc. can be treated & recovery is likely • 動物可放歸野外 Animal can be returned to the ‘wild’ • 具有足夠的資源、專業能力和設施 Sufficient resources, expertise & facilities • 瀕危動物而無法放歸但可豢養繁殖 Endangered & cannot be released, but can be used for captive breeding • 若沒有這些條件，需進行人道安樂死處理。 If not then should be humanely euthanased

外來寵物Exotic pets • 「外來寵物」的廣泛多樣性 Wide variety of ‘exotic’ pets • 當地社區豢養原生種動物 Local communities keeping indigenous animals • 全球大型寵物店出售的動物 Animals sold by large pet shops worldwide • 恐懼不安和/或疾病史因為 Fear, distress and/or disease because • 居留的場所不符物種的需求 Confinement that does not meet species needs • 人類的接觸和豢養 Human contact & husbandry • 不當的飲食 Inappropriate diets

野生物種的養殖Farming of wild species • 較大範圍的豢養物種：Relatively wide range of species farmed: • 鴕鳥、野豬、袋鼠、水牛 Ostrich, wild boar, kangaroo, buffalo, • 某些福祉的重要問題即類似馴化的養殖動物：豢養、收容和屠宰。 Some welfare concerns similar to domestic farm animals: husbandry, housing, slaughter, • 其他的重要問題 Additional concerns • 未馴化會造成更大的恐懼不安 Not domesticated so greater distress & fear • 需修正某些實務以避免疼痛和恐懼不安，如屠宰。 Need to modify some practices to avoid pain, fear & distress e.g. slaughter

工作用的動物Working animals • 豢養野生動物的最小類別 Smallest category of captive wild animals • 伐木用的大象、「幫手」猴子、搜尋水雷的海豚、馬戲團和電影中的動物 Logging elephants, ‘helper’ monkeys, mine-hunting dolphins, circus & film animals • 特別重要的問題 - 疼痛和恐懼不安 Particular concerns—pain, fear and distress • 人類的接觸、對待、不當的訓練和敵對的狀況 Human contact, handling, inappropriate training and alien situation • 可能缺乏表達正常行為的可能性 May lack possibilities to perform normal behaviour • 通常需捕獵才能夠提供新進的動物 New animals often need to be caught

法規Legislation • 國際實例： International examples: • CITES (瀕危野生動植物種國際貿易公約) (1975) CITES (The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) (1975) • 捕鯨管制國際公約（1946） International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (1946) • 遷徙物種公約（1983） Convention on Migratory Species (1983)

法規Legislation • 國內實例： National examples: • 哥斯大黎加生物多樣性法規（1998） Biodiversity law of Costa Rica (1998), • 馬拉維國家公園和野生動物保護法（1992） Malawi National Parks and Wildlife Act (1992), • 中國中華人民共和國野生物保護法（1989） Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife (1989). • 動物福祉方案 Animal welfare Acts of • Philippines (1998), UK (2006), USA (1966) • 菲律賓 (1998)、英國(2006)、美國(1966) • 歐盟規範1999/22/EC（1999） European Directive 1999/22/EC (1999)

結論Conclusions • 大部份的福祉屬人為的問題 Most welfare issues are anthropogenic • 福祉按照各別的層次來定義和評估 Welfare is defined & evaluated at individual level • 自由生活野生動物相關的問題 Issues affecting free-living wild animals: • 誘捕/狩獵/捕魚、人為侵害和交易 Trapping/hunting/fishing, human encroachment & trade • 豢養野生動物相關的問題 Issues affecting captive wild animals: • 人為的收容、對待和運用 Housing, handling and utilisation by humans • 取決於認知上的改進 Improvement depends on awareness • 獸醫在此扮演重要的角色！ Vets play critical role in this!

延伸閱讀-書籍Further Reading - Books • AUSTEN, M & RICHARDS, T (2000) Basic Legal Documents on International Animal Welfare and Wildlife Conservation. Kluwer Law International • FOWLER, ME & MILLER, RE (Eds), 1978, 1986, 1993, 1999: Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 1-4. W.B. Saunders Company • INGLIS, I (2007) Wildlife Management and Welfare. Blackwell Science • KLEIMAN, DG, ALLEN, ME, THOMPSON, KV, LUMPKIN, S (Eds.), 1997: Wild Mammals in Captivity: Principles and Techniques. University of Chicago Press

延伸閱讀-書籍Further Reading - Books • NORTON, BG, HUTCHINS, M, STEVENS, EF, MAPLE, TL (Eds.), 1996: Ethics on the Ark: Zoos, Animal Welfare and Wildlife Conservation. Smithsonian Books • TABER, RD & Payne NF (2004) Wildlife, Conservation, and Human Welfare. Krieger Publishing Company • YOUNG RJ (2003) Environmental Enrichment for Captive Animals. Blackwell Science

延伸閱讀- 網站Further Reading – Web sites • 生物多樣性公約（www.biodiv.org） Convention on Biological Diversity (www.biodiv.org) • 鳥類生物國際協會(www.birdlife.net) Birdlife International (www.birdlife.net) • 野味危機工作隊(www.bushmeat.org) Bushmeat Crisis Task Force (www.bushmeat.org) • 瀕危物種國際貿易公約(CITES) (www.cites.org) The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) (www.cites.org) • 聯合國農糧組織（FAO）（www.fao.org） Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (www.fao.org) • 也對我貿易監控網路(TRAFFIC) (www.traffic.org) The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC.) (www.traffic.org) • 國際自然保護聯盟（IUCN）紅色名單 (www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/redlist2006/portraits_in_red.htm) International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list (www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/redlist2006/portraits_in_red.htm) • 世界野生動物基金會 (WWF) 人類-動物衝突工作表 (http://assets.wwf.ch/downloads/conflictw.pdf) World Wildife Fund (WWF) Human-animal conflict worksheet (http://assets.wwf.ch/downloads/conflictw.pdf)

延伸閱讀- 網站Further Reading – Web sites • 野生動物保護委員會國際律師協會美國分會(http://eelink.net/~asilwildlife/legislat.shtm) Wildlife Committee American Branch International Law Association (http://eelink.net/~asilwildlife/legislat.shtm) • 美國動物園和水族館協會：動物福利科學事實紀錄表(www.aza.org/Publications/2004/09/Animal_Welfare_Science.pdf) American Zoo and Aquarium Association: Animal Welfare Science fact sheet (www.aza.org/Publications/2004/09/Animal_Welfare_Science.pdf) • 雜役猴子 (www.helpinghandsmonkeys.org) Helping Hands Monkeys (www.helpinghandsmonkeys.org) • 南非環保署(www.environment.sa.gov.au/animalwelfare/wild.html) South African Environmental Agency (www.environment.sa.gov.au/animalwelfare/wild.html) • 世界動物園和水族館協會 (www.waza.org/ethics/index.php?main=ethics&view=ethics) World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (www.waza.org/ethics/index.php?main=ethics&view=ethics)

野生動物福祉（1）：野生動物的管理 Wild animal welfare (1): management of wildlife