STEREOTYPES AND PREJUDICE

1. STEREOTYPES AND PREJUDICE

2. DEFINITION A STEREOTYPE (FROM GREEK: STEREO + TÝPOS = "SOLID IMPRESSION") IS A GENERALIZED PERCEPTION OF FIRST IMPRESSIONS: BEHAVIORS PRESUMED BY A GROUP OF PEOPLE JUDGING WITH THE EYES/CRITICIZING ONES OUTER APPEARANCE (OR A POPULATION IN GENERAL) TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH ANOTHER SPECIFIC GROUP. STEREOTYPES, THEREFORE, CAN INSTIGATE PREJUDICE AND FALSE ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT ENTIRE GROUPS OF PEOPLE, INCLUDING THE MEMBERS OF DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUPS, SOCIAL CLASSES, RELIGIOUS ORDERS, THE OPPOSITE SEX, ETC.

3. DEFINITION A STEREOTYPE CAN BE A CONVENTIONAL AND OVERSIMPLIFIED CONCEPTION, OPINION, OR IMAGE, BASED ON THE ASSUMPTION THAT THERE ARE ATTRIBUTES THAT MEMBERS OF THE "OTHER GROUP" HAVE IN COMMON. STEREOTYPES ARE FORMS OF SOCIAL CONSENSUS RATHER THAN INDIVIDUAL JUDGMENTS. STEREOTYPES ARE SOMETIMES FORMED BY A PREVIOUS ILLUSORY CORRELATION, A FALSE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN TWO VARIABLES THAT ARE LOOSELY CORRELATED IF CORRELATED AT ALL. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SUx0VvZd5rI

4. DEFINITION STEREOTYPES FIND THEIR PROVENANCE IN THE RATIONALISATION OF THINKING AND THE ATTEMPT TO ORIENTATE ONESELF IN THE WORLD AS QUICKLY AND EFFECTIVELY AS POSSIBLE. EVERY DAY, A PERSON COMES UP AGAINST A LARGE AMOUNT OF INFORMATION WHICH THEY HAVE TO ANALYSE AND EVALUATE IN THE MINIMUM AMOUNT OF TIME, AND THEN USE AS THE BASIS ON WHICH TO ACT AS APPROPRIATELY AS POSSIBLE GIVEN THE SITUATION IN WHICH THEY FIND THEMSELVES. FOR THIS REASON, FAST CATEGORIZATION IS THE STANDARD MEANS BY WHICH WE THINK IN THE WORLD, AND BY WHICH WE REACT.

5. CAUSES DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES GIVE DIFFERENT ACCOUNTS OF HOW STEREOTYPES DEVELOP: PSYCHOLOGISTS FOCUS ON HOW EXPERIENCE WITH GROUPS, PATTERNS OF COMMUNICATION ABOUT THE GROUPS, AND INTERGROUP CONFLICT. SOCIOLOGISTS FOCUS ON THE RELATIONS AMONG GROUPS AND POSITION OF DIFFERENT GROUPS IN A SOCIAL STRUCTURE. PSYCHOANALYTICALLY-ORIENTED HUMANISTS HAVE ARGUED THAT STEREOTYPES, BY DEFINITION, THE REPRESENTATIONS ARE NOT ACCURATE, BUT A PROJECTION OF ONE TO ANOTHER.

6. CAUSES STEREOTYPES ARE BASED ON IMAGES IN MASS MEDIA, OR REPUTATIONS PASSED ON BY PARENTS, PEERS AND OTHER MEMBERS OF SOCIETY. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nbZ9zJ22WfQ

7. HOW TO CHANGE THE STEREOTYPES ? WE CHANGE OUR STEREOTYPES INFREQUENTLY. EVEN IN THE FACE OF DISCONFIRMING EVIDENCE, WE OFTEN CLING TO OUR OBVIOUSLY-WRONG BELIEFS. WHEN WE DO CHANGE THE STEREOTYPES, WE DO SO IN ONE OF THREE WAYS: 1. BOOKKEEPING MODEL: AS WE LEARN NEW CONTRADICTORY INFORMATION, WE INCREMENTALLY ADJUST THE STEREOTYPE TO ADAPT TO THE NEW INFORMATION. WE USUALLY NEED QUITE A LOT OF REPEATED INFORMATION FOR EACH INCREMENTAL CHANGE. INDIVIDUAL EVIDENCE IS TAKEN AS THE EXCEPTION THAT PROVES THE RULE.

8. HOW TO CHANGE THE STEREOTYPES ? 2. CONVERSION MODEL: WE THROW AWAY THE OLD STEREOTYPE AND START AGAIN. THIS IS OFTEN USED WHEN THERE IS SIGNIFICANT DISCONFIRMING EVIDENCE. 3. SUBTYPING MODEL: WE CREATE A NEW STEREOTYPE THAT IS A SUB-CLASSIFICATION OF THE EXISTING STEREOTYPE, PARTICULARLY WHEN WE CAN DRAW A BOUNDARY AROUND THE SUB-CLASS. THUS IF WE HAVE A STEREOTYPE FOR AMERICANS, A VISIT TO NEW YORK MAY RESULT IN US HAVING A ‘NEW YORKERS ARE DIFFERENT’ SUB-TYPE.

9. PREJUDICE THE WORD PREJUDICE REFERS TO PREJUDGMENT: MAKING A DECISION BEFORE BECOMING AWARE OF THE RELEVANT FACTS OF A CASE OR EVENT. THE WORD HAS COMMONLY BEEN USED IN CERTAIN RESTRICTED CONTEXTS, IN THE EXPRESSION „RACIAL PREJUDICE”. INITIALLY THIS IS REFERRED TO MAKING A JUDGMENT ABOUT A PERSON BASED ON THEIR RACE, RELIGION, CLASS, ETC., BEFORE RECEIVING INFORMATION RELEVANT TO THE PARTICULAR ISSUE ON WHICH A JUDGMENT WAS BEING MADE; IT CAME, HOWEVER, TO BE WIDELY USED TO REFER TO ANY HOSTILE ATTITUDE TOWARDS PEOPLE BASED ON THEIR RACE OR EVEN BY JUST JUDGING SOMEONE WITHOUT EVEN KNOWING THEM.

10. PREJUDICE SUBSEQUENTLY THE WORD HAS COME TO BE WIDELY SO INTERPRETED IN THIS WAY IN CONTEXTS OTHER THAN THOSE RELATING TO RACE. THE MEANING NOW IS FREQUENTLY „ANY UNREASONABLE ATTITUDE THAT IS UNUSUALLY RESISTANT TO RATIONAL INFLUENCE”.RACE, SEX, ETHNICITY, SEXUAL ORIENTATION, AGE, AND RELIGION HAVE A HISTORY OF INCITING PREJUDICIAL BEHAVIOUR.

11. FORMS OF PREJUDICE COGNITIVE PREJUDICE REFERS TO WHAT PEOPLE BELIEVE IS TRUE. AN EXAMPLE OF COGNITIVE PREJUDICE MIGHT BE FOUND, FOR EXAMPLE, ADHERENCE TO A PARTICULAR METAPHYSICAL OR METHODOLOGICAL PHILOSOPHY TO THE EXCLUSION OF OTHER PHILOSOPHIES THAT MAY OFFER A MORE COMPLETE THEORETICAL EXPLANATION. AFFECTIVE PREJUDICE REFERS TO WHAT PEOPLE LIKE AND DISLIKE. AN EXAMPLE OF AFFECTIVE PREJUDICE MIGHT BE FOUND, FOR EXAMPLE, IN ATTITUDES TOWARD MEMBERS OF PARTICULAR CLASSES SUCH AS RACE, ETHNICITY, NATIONAL ORIGIN, OR CREED.

12. FORMS OF PREJUDICE CONATIVE PREJUDICE REFERS TO HOW PEOPLE ARE INCLINED TO BEHAVE. CONATIVE PREJUDICE IS REGARDED AS AN ATTITUDE BECAUSE PEOPLE DON'T ACT ON THEIR FEELINGS. AN EXAMPLE OF CONATIVE PREJUDICE MIGHT BE FOUND IN EXPRESSIONS OF WHAT SHOULD BE DONE IF THE OPPORTUNITY PRESENTED ITSELF.

13. DISCRIMINATION DISCRIMINATIONIS A BEHAVIOR (AN ACTION), WITH REFERENCE TO UNEQUAL TREATMENT OF PEOPLE BECAUSE THEY ARE MEMBERS OF A PARTICULAR GROUP. PERSONAL / INDIVIDUAL DISCRIMINATION IS DIRECTED TOWARD A SPECIFIC INDIVIDUAL AND REFERS TO ANY ACT THAT LEADS TO UNEQUAL TREATMENT BECAUSE OF THE INDIVIDUAL'S REAL OR PERCEIVED GROUP MEMBERSHIP.

14. DISCRIMINATION LEGAL DISCRIMINATION REFERS TO "UNEQUAL TREATMENT, ON THE GROUNDS OF GROUP MEMBERSHIP, THAT IS UPHELD BY LAW. APARTHEID IS AN EXAMPLE OF LEGAL DISCRIMINATION, AS ARE ALSO VARIOUS POST-CIVIL WAR LAWS IN THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES THAT LEGALLY DISADVANTAGED NEGROS WITH RESPECT TO PROPERTY RIGHTS, EMPLOYMENT RIGHTS AND THE EXERCISE OF CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS.

15. DISCRIMINATION INSTITUTIONAL DISCRIMINATION REFERS TO UNEQUAL TREATMENT THAT IS ENTRENCHED IN BASIC SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS RESULTING IN ADVANTAGING ONE GROUP OVER ANOTHER. THE INDIAN CASTE SYSTEM IS A HISTORICAL EXAMPLE OF INSTITUTIONAL DISCRIMINATION.

16. RACISM RACISM IS THE BELIEF THAT RACE IS THE PRIMARY DETERMINANT OF HUMAN TRAITS AND CAPACITIES AND THAT RACIAL DIFFERENCES PRODUCE AN INHERENT SUPERIORITY OF A PARTICULAR RACE. PEOPLE WITH RACIST BELIEFS MIGHT HATE CERTAIN GROUPS OF PEOPLE ACCORDING TO THEIR RACIAL GROUPS. ACCORDING TO THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTIONS, THERE IS NO DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE TERM RACIAL DISCRIMINATION AND ETHNIC DISCRIMINATION.

17. RACISM THE UN DOES NOT DEFINE "RACISM", HOWEVER IT DOES DEFINE "RACIAL DISCRIMINATION": ACCORDING TO THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION: „the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life”.

18. SEXISM SEXISM IS THE BELIEF OR ATTITUDE THAT ONE GENDER OR SEX IS INFERIOR TO OR LESS VALUABLE THAN THE OTHER AND CAN ALSO REFER TO HATRED OR DISTRUST TOWARDS EITHER SEX AS A WHOLE (SEE ALSO MISOGYNY AND MISANDRY), OR CREATING STEREOTYPES OF MASCULINITY FOR MEN OR FEMININITY FOR WOMEN. IT IS ALSO CALLED MALE AND FEMALE CHAUVINISM.

19. SEXISM HISTORICALLY, IN MANY PATRIARCHAL SOCIETIES, WOMEN HAVE BEEN AND ARE VIEWED AS THE "WEAKER SEX". WOMEN'S LOWER STATUS CAN BE SEEN IN CASES IN WHICH WOMEN WERE NOT EVEN RECOGNIZED AS PERSONS UNDER THE LAW OF THE LAND. THE FEMINIST MOVEMENT PROMOTES WOMEN'S RIGHTS TO END SEXISM AGAINST WOMEN BY ADDRESSING ISSUES SUCH AS EQUALITY UNDER THE LAW, POLITICAL REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN, ACCESS TO EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT, WOMEN VICTIMS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE, SELF-OWNERSHIP OF A WOMAN'S BODY, AND THE POSSIBLE IMPACT OF PORNOGRAPHY ON WOMEN.