FS Ch 1: History of Forensic Science K. Davis

1. FS Ch 1:History of Forensic ScienceK. Davis

2. Deadly Picnic • Before: (Graphic Organizer) • Take out data tables 1 & 2 for active reading. • During: (Deadly Picnic Mystery) • Take the Data Table 1 and fill it in with information as you read the background information. • Take the Data Table 2 and fill it in with information as you read the procedure. • Answer the Post-Lab Questions • After: (Exit Slip) Turn in Lab Report • Who did it? How do you know?

3. Think/Pair/Share • Think: • How long has forensic evidence been helping to solve crimes? • Pair: • Discuss with your neighbor. • Share: • Discuss as a class. • What is the consensus?

4. What is forensic science? • Forensic = (adj.)Pertaining to legal proceedings or public debate • Forensic Science = application of science to the processes of law and involves the collection, examination, evaluation, and interpretation of evidence

5. Early History • BCE (Before the Common Era) - Evidence of fingerprints in early painting & rock carvings • 44 BC - 1st recorded autopsy on Julius Caesar • 700s- Chinese used fingerprints to establish identity of documents & clay sculptures • 1000 - Quintilian showed that bloody palm prints were meant to frame a blind man • 1248 - His Duan Yu, distinguished drowningfrom strangulation • 1609 - first treatise on systematic document examination was published in France • 1784 - physical matching from a pistol wad

6. Say Something: 1 to 2 • 1’s tell the 2’s: • 2 events that occurred during the early history (BCE) time period. • 2’s tell the 1’s: • 2 more events that occurred during the early history (BCE) time period.

7. 1800’s • 1810 - first recorded use of questioned document analysis in Germany (ink dye) • 1813 – Orfila, the father of forensictoxicology, developed tests for the presence of blood & studied blood and semen stains under the microscope • 1835 – Henry Goddard used bullet comparison to catch a murderer • 1836 – Marsh first use of toxicology in a jury trial (detected arsenic) • 1853 – development of the first microscopic crystal test for hemoglobin

8. 1800’s • 1863 – discovery of the ability of hemoglobin to oxidize hydrogen peroxide making it foam resulting in the first presumptive test for blood • 1864 – first use of photography for the ID of criminals & documentation of evidence & crime scenes • 1880 – Faulds published a paper suggesting fingerprints at the scene of a crime could identify the offender. This led to the first recorded use of fingerprints to solve a crime. • 1887 – Doyle published the 1st SherlockHolmes story

9. Say Something: 2 to 1 • 2’s tell the 1’s: • 3 events that occurred during the 1800’s • 1’s tell the 2’s: • 3 more events that occurred during the 1800’s

10. 1900’s • 1900 – Landsteiner developed ABO blood typing groups • 1901 – Uhlenhuth developed the precipitin test for species and was one of the first to use standards, controls, and QA/QC procedures. • 1901 – Henry forced the adoption of fingerprint identification to replace anthropometry • 1903 – NY state prison was 1st in US to begin using fingerprints for criminal identification. • 1904 – Locard’s Exchange Principle developed; “Every contact leaves a trace.”

11. 1900’s • 1905 – President Theodore Roosevelt established the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) • 1915 – Lattes developed the 1stantibody test for ABO blood groups (typing of dried stains). • 1920’s – Calvin Goddard, with C. Waite, P. Gravelle, and J. Fisher perfected the comparison microscope for bullet comparison. • 1923 – Frye vs US; polygraph test results were ruled inadmissible; introduced the concept of “general acceptance” • 1932 – FBI crime laboratory was created

12. 1900’s • 1937 – development of chemiluminescent reagent, luminol, as a presumptive test for blood • 1940 – Landsteiner and Wiener 1st described the Rh blood group • 1941 – 1st study of voiceprint identification • 1954 – invention of Breathalyzer • 1974 – detection of gunshot residue (GSR) using a scanning electron microscope with electron dispersive X-rays (SEMEDX) technology

13. 1900’s • 1975 – enactment of Federal Rules of Evidence • 1976 – 1st evaluation of gas chromatograph and mass spectrometer (GCMS) for forensics • 1977 –“Superglue” fuming method for fingerprints developed • 1977 – FBI introduced the beginnings of its Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) with the first computerized scans of fingerprints • 1983 – development of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique

14. 1900’s • 1984 – Jeffreys developed the 1stDNA profiling test; involved the detection of a multilocusRFLP pattern • 1986 – 1st use of DNA to solve a crime • 1987 – DNA profiling was introduced to the courts for the 1st time in the US (conviction of Tommy Lee Andrews) • 1991 – Walsh Automation Inc. and the ATF introduced the automated imaging system called the Integrated Ballistics Identification System (IBIS) for comparison of the marks left on fired bullets, cartridge cases, and shell casings.

15. 1900’s • 1992 – In a paper, Caskey suggested the use of short tandem repeats (STR) for forensic DNA analysis. • 1992 – FBI and Mnemonic Systems developed Drugfire for ballistics comparisons • 1993 – Daubert vs. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (“gatekeeping” role of judge) • 1994 – DNA Identification Act of 1994 authorized the COmbined DNA Index System (CODIS) • 1996 – Mitochondrial DNA 1st admitted in court • 1999 – FBI upgraded AFIS to Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS) • 1999 – Drugfire(FBI) & IBIS(ATF) established & correlated using the National Integrated Ballistics Network (NIBIN)

16. Say Something: 1 to 2 • 1’s tell the 2’s: • 5 events that occurred during the 1900’s • 2’s tell the 1’s: • 5 more events that occurred during the 1900’s

17. 2000’s • 2003 – Completion of the Human Genome Project • Continued advancements in many areas, ex: • DNA fingerprinting • DNA profiling • Forensic engineering • Digital forensics • X-ray forensics (guns)

18. 3:2:1 • 1900’s: • List 3 events from this time period. • 1800’s: • List 2 events from this time period. • BCE: • List 1 events from this time period.

19. Think/Pair/Share • Think: • Pick one event you believe is the most important from each time period (BCE, 1800, 1900, 2000). • Pair: • Discuss why you chose those events. • Share: • Share with the class why your event is the most important.

20. Important People in forensics • Mathieu Orfila (1787-1853) – the “father of forensic toxicology” • Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914) – the “father of criminal identification”; developed 1st system of personal identification using body measurements (called anthropometry) • Francis Galton (1822-1911) – developed methodology for fingerprinting

21. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859 – 1914) • Wrote the Sherlock Holmes mysteries • Holmes was the first to apply developing principles of serology, fingerprinting, firearm identification, and questioned-document examination. • Excited the imagination of an emerging generation of forensic scientists and criminal investigators

22. Important People in forensics • Karl Landsteiner (1868 – 1943) – discovered ABO blood (A, B, AB, & O) grouping and the Rhesus (Rh) blood group • Leone Lattes (1887-1954) – developed techniques to determine ABO blood groups from dried bloodstains • Calvin Goddard (1891-1944) – expert in ballistic analysis (comparison microscope) • Albert Osborn (1858-1946) – developed principle of document examination

23. Important People in forensics • Walter McCrone (1916-2002) – instrumental in using and perfecting microscope use in forensic analysis; published “The Microscope”for >30 yrs • Hans Gross (1847-1915) – authored “Criminal Investigation”, the first treatise describing the application of scientific disciplines to field of criminal investigation • Edmond Locard (1877-1966) – created 1stpolice crime laboratory; created the Locard Exchange Principle

24. Locard’s Exchange Principle • Locard Exchange Principle =“The exchange of materials between 2 objects that occurs whenever 2 objects come into contact with one another” • “Every Contact Leaves a Trace.” • He believed that every criminal can be connected to a crime by particles carried from the crime scene. • When a criminal comes in contact with an object or person, a cross-transfer of evidence occurs.

25. Discussion • Which important person stands out the most to you? • Why?

26. Crime Labs • ≈320 public crime labs in US (>3-fold increase since 1966) • Growth caused by: • Increasing crime rates • 1960s Supreme Court decisions • the requirement to advise criminal suspects of their constitutional rights and their right to immediate counsel • the increase in drug-related cases requiring confirmatory chemical analysis from the lab • the advent of DNA profiling (labor intensive)

27. Crime Labs • US - a system mostly of independent local laboratories with a lack of regional or national coordination. • Britain - developed a national system of regional laboratories under the direction of the government’s Home Office. • function to train police investigators about physical evidence (ID, collection, & preservation, etc.)

28. Say Something: What is responsible for the rapid growth of crime labs? • Increasing crime rates • 1960s Supreme Court decisions • the requirement to advise criminal suspects of their constitutional rights and their right to immediate counsel • the increase in drug-related cases requiring confirmation from the lab • the advent of DNA profiling (labor intensive)

29. 4 Major Federal Crime Labs: • FBI – Federal Bureau ofInvestigation Laboratories (Department of Justice) • World’s largest crime lab • Broad investigative powers • DEA - Drug Enforcement Agency Laboratories (Department of Justice) • Responsible for the analysis of drugs seized in violation of federal laws regulating the production, sale, and transportation of drugs

30. 4 Major Federal Crime Labs: • ATF – Bureau of Alcohol,Tobacco, Firearms, & Explosives Laboratories (Department of Justice) • Responsible for analyzing alcoholic beverages and documents relating to tax law enforcement and for examining weapons, explosive devices, and related evidence received in conjunction with enforcement of the Gun control Act of 1968 and the Organized Crime Control Act of 1970 • Treasury counterpart to FBI • US Postal Inspection Service Laboratories • Maintains laboratories concerned with criminal investigations relating to the postal service

31. 4 Major Federal Crime Labs: • Each of these four federal facilities will offer its expertise to any local agency that requests assistance in relevant investigative matters. • Many states have developed a statewide system of regional or satellite laboratories that operate under the direction of a central facility and provide forensic services to most areas of the state. • Local laboratories provide services to county and municipal agencies. Generally they are independent of the statewide system.

32. Mix & Match • World’s largest crime lab • Analysis of seized drugs • Treasury counterpart to FBI; analysis of alcoholic beverages, tax papers, weapons, and explosive devices • Concerned with criminal investigations relating to the postal service • ATF • FBI • USPS • DEA

33. Basic services • Physical Science Unit– applies principles and techniques of chemistry, physics, and geology to the identification and comparison of crime scene evidence (ex. drugs, trace evidence, soil and mineral analysis, glass, paint, and explosives) • Biology Unit– deals in identification and grouping of dried blood stains and other body fluids (DNA, blood, urine, saliva, semen), comparison of hairs and fibers, and the identification and comparison of botanical materials (wood and plants)

34. Basic services • Firearms Unit– examination of firearms, discharged bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun shells, and ammunition of all types is conducted by the firearms unit. Garments and other objects are also examined in order to detect firearm discharge residues and to approximate the distance from a target at which a weapon was fired. Toolmark comparison is also investigated in this unit.

35. Basic services • Documents Unit– handwriting and typewriting on questioned documents are studied by this unit to ascertain authenticity and/or source; includes analysis of paper and ink, examination of indented writings, obliterations, erasures, and burned or charred documents • Photography Unit– examination and recording of physical evidence through photography

37. Optional/other services • Anthropology – age, sex, race, etc. • Dactyloscopy – study of fingerprints; • DNA Fingerprinting – technique used to identify individuals based on their genetic code • Engineering – the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property

38. Optional/other services • Entomology – insects to determine time of death • Evidence Collection – collect and preserve physical evidence • Odontology – dental records • Pathology - autopsy • Polygraph – lie detectors • Psychiatry – behavior/insanity • Toxicology - poisons • Voiceprint Analysis - recordings

39. Graphic Organizer

40. Problems with crime labs can occur in any of these 3 areas: • Chain of Custody – chronological documentation or paper trail showing the seizure, custody, control, transfer, analysis and disposition of physical or electronic evidence • Recognition and Collection of Evidence: • evidence has to be discovered • it has to be collected • it has to be transported to the lab where it is logged in, assigned an identification number, placed in storage, and kept from mingling with other evidence

41. Problems with crime labs can occur in any of these 3 areas: • Processing of Evidence: • labs must be contaminant- free • tests properly performed & documented • evidence transported back into storage • reports written on analysis of evidence

42. Lab accreditation process • Quality control manual • Quality assurance manual • Lab testing protocol • Program for proficiency testing – workers up to standards

43. labs Attacks come in 3 ways: • Tampering – to interfere with in a harmful manner; to tinker with rashly or foolishly; to engage in improper or secret dealings, as in an effort to influence

44. labs Attacks come in 3 ways: • Contamination – to make impure or unclean by contact or mixture • Substitution – accidental change or replacement; mistakes

45. Mix & Match • Tampering • Substitution • Contamination • to make impure or unclean by contact or mixture • to interfere with in a harmful manner • accidental change or replacement; mistakes

46. Role of forensic scientist • Collection & Analysis of Physical Evidence • must be skilled in applying the principles and techniques of the physical and natural sciences to the study of many types of evidence that may be recovered during a crime investigation

47. Role of forensic scientist • Must be aware of demands and constraints imposed by judicial system (evidence must be admissible in court) • Frye vs. US • Coppolino vs. State • Daubert vs. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals • Kumho Tire Co., LTD vs. Carmichael

48. Frye vs. us (1923) • Court held that expert opinion based on a scientific technique is admissible only where the technique is generally accepted as reliable in the relevant scientific community. • Became known as the Frye standard, or general acceptance test; test to determine the admissibility of scientific evidence. • This applies to procedures, principles or techniques that may be presented in the proceedings of a court case.

49. Coppolino vs. state (196 – 1967) • Dealt with the acceptability of new scientific tests • Lab detected the presence of a drug not included in the existing drug tests • “New” scientific testing detected the presence of the drug. • It was admissible because the court realized the importance of keeping up with scientific developments.

50. Daubert vs. Merrell Dow pharmaceuticals (1993) • US Supreme Court held that the Federal Rules of Evidence superseded the Frye standard • referred to as the Daubert standard • Guidelines: • Can technique/theory be tested? • Has technique/theory been subject to peer review and publication? • techniques potential rate of error • existence and maintenance of standards • Has theory/method attracted acceptance within relevant scientific community?