KEAMANAN, KEKERASAN, DAN KESEHATAN DI TEMPAT KERJA Pertemuan 18

2. KEAMANAN, KEKERASAN, DAN KESEHATAN DI TEMPAT KERJAPertemuan 18 Matakuliah : L0064 / Psikologi Industri & Organisasi 1 Tahun : 2007 / 2008

3. Learning Objectives After reading this chapter you should be able to: • Understand the seriousness of safety, violence, and health issues in the workplace • Describe the nature of work-related health problems • Appreciate the understated nature of a accident statistics • Identify causes of accidents, both personal factors and workplace factors • Explain accident prevention efforts commonly undertaken by organizations • Describe the nature of violence in the workplace, how to identify potentially violent employees, and steps to take to protect employees from violence • Understand the effects of alcoholism and drugs in the workplace • Explain the unique risks to health presented by computers in the workplace • Describe the effect of the presence of the HIV-infected employee on morale and productivity

4. Workplace Health and Safety • 5000 accidental deaths annually • 90% male • In excess of 4 million disabling injuries annually • Staggering costs to organizations • Health of workers is harmed by toxic chemicals and workplace conditions • Accidents are the primary cause of death on the job & murder is second

5. Work-Related Health Problems • 10 million workers are exposed daily to chemicals • EPA identified 16,000 toxic chemical substances in the workplace • 150 of these are neurotoxins • Sealed office buildings may be unhealthy • Many workers are exposed to asbestos, radiation, pollutants, or even cotton dust • Occupational asthma is the most common work-related respiratory disorder • 15% of asthma sufferers acquired their disease from exposure to job-related chemicals • Job related cancers are on the increase

6. Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 • Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) established in Department of Labor to assure safe and healthy working conditions • Tasked with developing and enforcing federal safety standards and sponsoring associated research • OSHA is poorly funded and unable to fulfill its mandate • There are so few inspectors that the average company can expect to be visited only once every 84 years

7. Employee Accident Statistics • The definition of an accident depends on whether the worker misses time from work • There is an almost universal failure to understate the number of accidents and injuries • Incomplete recording makes research difficult • To preserve a good safety record and public image, companies resort to closed-door investigations, and distortion of facts

8. Causes of Accidents • Human error is responsible for most accidents • Workplace factors contributing to accidents • Type of industry • Hours of work • Lighting • Temperature • Equipment design • Safety devices • Social pressure

9. Type of Industry • High in frequency and severity of accidents: highway construction, timber, & mining • Low in frequency and severity: warehousing, automobile & aircraft manufacturing, and communications • Some industries report few, but severe, accidents: e.g., electric utilities • Some have high accident rates, but not severe: wholesale and retail

10. Hours of Work • Fewer accidents occur during the night shift than during the day shift • But night shift accidents tend to be more severe • Illumination may be an issue • Artificial lighting at night may be better to work in than natural lighting conditions during the day • The more overtime worked, the greater the safety problems • Research does not provide clear support for this idea

11. Lighting • Improved lighting can lead to a reduction in accidents • Accidents are higher in plants that continue production through dusk before turning on nighttime lighting Illumination Accidents

12. Temperature • Accident rates are lowest when temperature is 68-70 degrees F • Accidents increase when temperatures vary significantly above or below this mark • Higher temperatures especially make workers more careless • Older workers are more affected by climatic extremes

13. Equipment Design • Poor placement of switches controls blamed for many accidents • Engineering psychologists strive to match equipment requirements with human capabilities • Redesign of equipment reduces repetitive motion injuries • Optimum design for checkout clerks is standing and to use both hands interchangeably to scan items

14. Safety Devices • Built-in safety devices prevent accidents • Personal protection equipment (e.g., special respirators, hard hats, eyeglasses) is provided to workers in dangerous jobs • Safety devices must be functional, but not interfere with operation of machine • Safety equipment can be uncomfortable and influences decisions on use • Only 30% of auto glass factory workers felt respirator was comfortable enough to wear

15. Social Pressure • The pressure to maintain a schedule or adhere to a timetable can result in accidents • Shutting down an assembly line can be costly and may result in punishment • Pressure from peers or management can deter work slowdown and result in increased accidents • Example: Airline pilots are often held responsible for on-time performance causing them to take off in sub-optimal conditions

16. Personal Factors • Alcohol and drug abuse cause accidents • Cognitive ability is a factor only for complex jobs • Health - unhealthy workers have more accidents • Fatigue increases accidents, especially last two hours of work • Work experience - negative relationship • Job involvement - negative relationship • Job insecurity - lowers safety motivation • Age - negative relationship • Personality - no clear relationship • Accident proneness - no evidence that it exists

17. Accident Prevention • Proper reporting of accidents • Attention to design features of the work area • Safety training • Management support • Safety publicity campaigns

18. Comprehensive Accident Report • Accident prevention program no better than quality of accident reports which should include • Precise time & location of accident • Type of job and number of employees performing it • Personal characteristics of the accident victim • Nature of the accident and known or suspected causes • Results of the accident

19. Workplace Design • Lighting must be adequate • Temperature must be comfortable • Work areas should be clean and orderly • Safety equipment should be present and convenient • Controls should be easy to reach and operate • Machines should not operate unless the safety device is engaged • The safety device must not interfere with production or cause additional work

20. Safety Training • Most training programs devote time to accident prevention • Teaches rules for safe operation and locations of emergency exits and first-aid equipment • Increased accident rates suggest a need for retraining • Companies that systematically focus on safety training have substantial reductions in accidents and hours lost from work • Training pays for itself

21. Management Support • Supervisors play a key role • Active management support for safe working practices is a key dimension of the organizational climate • Employees who perceive stronger organizational support for safety engage in fewer unsafe behaviors on the job • Ability to communicate freely is a positive factor, as is group safety climate • Strong management support sends message that safety compliance is required to retain job

22. Safety Publicity Campaigns • Posters and booklets • Stress positive themes, identify dangers and consequences, and tell how to avoid danger • Booklets relatively ineffective • Charts of accident-free days • Contests with appealing prizes • Obvious disadvantage is they can encourage workers to suppress accurate reporting of accidents

23. Violence in the Workplace • Murder is the second leading cause of death and primary cause of death for women on the job • 3/4’s are related to deliberate robberies • Ex-employees or co-workers commit 1/3 of homicides • Annually, over 2 million employees are physically assaulted or threatened with assault • Men are responsible for 70% of unruly behavior • Alcohol abuse is a major contributor to violence

24. Characteristics of Violent Employees • Male between the ages of 30 and 50 • Alcohol or drug abuser • Past history of violent behavior, serious psychiatric disorder, and impulsive behavior • History of trauma, abuse, and neglect • A loner with few social outlets • Identifies strongly with the job • Expresses feelings of shame or humiliation

25. Protecting Workers From Violence • Train managers to recognize potentially violent workers • Offer counseling to difficult workers • Supervisors can be taught human relations skills for use in delivering bad news • Install metal detectors, alarm systems, extra lighting, video surveillance cameras, bulletproof barriers, and hire more guards • Organizational support is beneficial • Instrumental – direct help to employee in need • Informational – providing information needed to deal with problem

26. Alcoholism In The Workplace • 14 million alcoholics in U.S. • 10% of American workforce has a drinking problem • Costs employers over $100 billion annually • Over 70% of known alcoholics are professional, semiprofessional, or managerial employees • Drug Free Workplace Act of 1988 makes employers who hold at least $25,000 in federal contracts responsible for preventing substance abuse on the job

27. Effects Of Alcohol On Performance • Alcoholics tend to deny affect on performance • Behavioral changes occur gradually • Excessive absenteeism, long lunch breaks, lies, errors, and low productivity • As alcoholism progresses, behavioral problems and consequences become more serious • See Figure 11-2 • Intervention at an early stage is vital to recovery

28. Alcoholic Executives • Cost to the company is greater • Adept at concealing their problem • Not as apt to be fired • Executives under the influence of alcohol make costly mistakes during negotiations • Research indicates those who negotiate under the influence of alcohol are more aggressive, more likely to insult, mislead and threaten others than when sober

29. Rehabilitation Programs • Employee assistance programs (EAP) provide counseling and rehabilitative services for employee problems including substance abuse • Fear of losing a job is a greater motivator than family influence • Three-step process • Education of managers and supervisors • Early detection of alcoholic employees • Referral of alcoholic employees for help • Co-workers who are members of AA are an effective treatment approach

30. Drug Use In The Workplace • 14.8 million Americans use illicit drugs • 11% between 12 and 17 use illicit drugs • Highest drug use rate is between 18 and 25 • Peaks at 17.4% at age 21 • Drug use is higher among men (8.7%) than women (4.9%) • 77% of drug users hold jobs • Greater availability of drugs in workplace leads to greater use…

31. Effects Of Drugs On Performance • Behavioral effects vary with the substance; users neglect appearance, personal hygiene, & clothing; emotional outbursts & tendency to borrow money • Cognitive & reflex impairment, sluggish, dilation or contraction of pupils, bloodshot, & needle marks • Four times as many accidents, three times the absences, three times the health benefit claims, and five times the workers comp claims • Often tardy with low job satisfaction; increase in theft; threat to themselves and safety of others

32. Drug Testing Programs • Most large corporations test for drug use and most refuse to hire those who test positive • Drug testing is controversial • Invasion of privacy; unreasonable search & seizure • Validity is also an issue • High rate of false positives • What levels of which drug causes which problems? • Cheating is possible, as is mishandling • Results should be kept confidential

33. A Successful Drug Program • Workers who are treated successfully then return to their jobs • EAPs report Up to 80% success rates • Only 5% of drug users who lose their jobs recover • Program includes • Clear and direct statement to employees about the drug use policy, drug testing, and consequences for violating the policy • Evaluate all applicants • Detect employees who use or sell drugs on the job

34. Computers and Health Issues • High incidence of back pain, physical fatigue, and visual disturbances • Repetitive motion injuries afflict over 2 million Americans in the workforce • Carpal tunnel syndrome - a repetitive motion disorder of the wrist that may involve numbness, tingling, or pain in fingers, hands, and forearms • Protective exclusion – practice of barring certain groups, such as women of childbearing age, from certain hazardous jobs • In 1991, Supreme Court ruled this is a form of discrimination (UAW vs. Johnson Controls) • Long term effect of computer emissions not known

35. HIV in the Workplace • An HIV positive person in a work group affects performance and morale • Inadequate knowledge leads fear due to exaggerated beliefs of contagion by casual contact on the job • Increasing cost of health care associated with AIDs can be perceived as a burden by organization • AIDs patients cannot be discriminated against in hiring or career decisions, nor can they be fired for fear of contagion

36. Key Terms • Accident proneness • Carpal tunnel syndrome • Employee assistance programs (EAPs) • Protective exclusion

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