Education: What knowledge, for what nation(s)?

1. Education: What knowledge, for what nation(s)? Modern tool of decolonization. Indigenous education and sovereignty

2. Today’s Plan • Review of the 3 texts: • Longboat: Indigenous education: from assimilation to refutation • Ball: Transformative education • Battiste: Decolonizing the academy with Indigenous humanities and sciences • Synthesis on Education • Based on my research on Indigenous higher education as a tool of decolonization across the Americas

3. Longboat (1987): • Indigenous education: from assimilation to refutation • Needs and culture of a society forge its educational philosophy, and those of Westerners and Indigenous Peoples were at odd… • The policies of assimilation that we have seen in class (Indian Act, etc.) • Yet, did not succeed completely • Today’s situation: • Peoples’ right to control the education of their children in international laws; • Indian Control of Indian Education in North America • Education as core tool to refute assimilationist policies • Control over education as critical in terms of self-government

4. Longboat (1987): • Policy of Indian Control of Indian Education: is the control of education a matter of sovereignty or of jurisdiction? • Canadian perspective: A jurisdiction: • Indigenous Peoples have no sovereignty, they have the powers that Canada delegate to them, and the rights Canada recognizes them. Part of these rights is the right to self-determination that all peoples have internationally, which includes education. • Indigenous perspective: Sovereignty linked to the inherent rights of nations, that continue to exist • Indigenous governments as having control over education (ex: James Bay Agreement and Cree control of education), even in the numbered treaties, where the establishment of schools IN THE RESERVE, was included, whenever the people would want it. In other words, the obligation is upon Canada to provide, but there were no surrender of sovereignty from Indigenous Peoples

5. Longboat (1987): • But are Indigenous Peoples currently controlling their education? • Indian act’s provisions for education do not include Indigenous communities or government • Only w/ school boards already existing (created by Provincial, but not FOR Indigenous Peoples, who are a Federal matter); or with a charitable organization • So, even with a policy of Indian control, policy is not the same as law, and Indian Law impede real control • Fiduciary responsibility as an excuse to delegate powers only when satisfied with standards; can’t be liable for something outside of its control • Indigenous education as a federal program rather than an education system: adoption of provincial curriculum and standard, which does not lead to development of new approaches, etc.

6. Even Today… Âpihtawikosisân: “There is no Aboriginal system of education in Canada. This fact is sometimes obscured by misunderstandings of reserve or band schools, or even charter schools that may provide ‘indigenous content’. Nonetheless, the system of education that exists in Canada is wholly Canadian, both legislatively and in terms of provision”

7. Ball (2004) • Transformative education: Community-based education partnerships between First Nations and postsecondary institutions • Curricula as cultural constructions grounded in the worldviews, beliefs, and norms • Influence the reproduction of cultures • Will it reproduce only the “Eurowestern” culture? • Will it serve the reproduction of Indigenous cultures? “we’ve sent so many of our young people away for further education, and we’re still waiting for them to come home”

8. Ball (2004) • Community-based approach: specific to each Indigenous community • Not searching for pan-Indigenous or universal approaches • No “best practices” that could be apply everywhere • Generative Curriculum Model • Uncovering new, community-relevant knowledge sources, considering knowledge that resides in communities, and creating fresh understandings from reflection and dialogue. • Community-based delivery: no leaving of the community, and allows co-creation, collaboration

9. Ball (2004) • First Nations Partnership Programs testify to the initiative, cultural richness, and commitment of some First Nations communities in Canada that have persisted in their pursuit of culturally appropriate education as a tool for community development • First Nations Partnership Programs have demonstrated successes in terms of student completion, community capacity, revitalization of intergenerational teaching and learning roles, and contributions to First Nations’ social development goals.

10. Battiste (2013) • Education: process by which a culture expresses its reality and values, processes its culture, and transmits it to each generation • Current curriculum: state sanctions and standardizes what counts as knowledge and ways of knowing • Establishing a stream, a mainstream, ignoring others: curriculum selection • To think about inclusivity, one must consider what is excluded

11. Battiste (2013) • Fair and just educational systems = trans-systemic, beyond two distinct systems • New relationships among and between knowledge systems • Moving beyond the culture discourses, because they otherise people in the institution (not acknowledging our own tradition, culture = the other) • Self-determination and deconstructing decisions about curricular knowledge, to make it about People’s lives

12. Battiste (2013) • Indigenous humanities • Indigenous sciences • As part of a curriculum that challenges current selective silence and collective ignorance • Building more inclusive societies • The greatest gap remaining the traditions of privilege, prestige and power

13. Synthesis on Education Based on my research on Indigenous higher education as a tool of decolonization across the Americas

14. context of colonization and decolonization in the Americas • Colonization in Education: cognitive imperialism (Battiste, 2005) or “civilizing” through education • Colonization in Social Sciences: socio-cultural evolutionism, the modern “language of savagery” (Williams, 2012) and nation-states building • Decolonization in Education: Indigenous higher education as a continental decolonizing tool • What about decolonization in Social Sciences? Towards Research Question

15. the context of colonization in the Americas: • 10 Principles according to Miller • Intellectual construction of: • Western “superiority” • Indigenous “savagery” (Williams) The Doctrine of Discovery as the legal justification for European colonization of the Americas

16. Colonization in Education: • Ideas of Western civilization and Native “deficiencies” leads to: • Resettlements and reducciones • Boarding/residential schools and education by hacenderos. Colonial process seen as a "civilizing" one leads to "educating" Indigenous Peoples according to Western ideas of religion and civilization (Lomawaima; Lomawaimaand McCathy) Cognitive imperialism (Battiste) or “civilizing” through education.

17. Colonization in Social Sciences: • Socio-cultural evolutionism, consolidated by Darwin’s theory leads to scientific justification of nation-state • Ex: Anthropological socio-cultural evolutionist theories in land claims and negation of Indigenous Peoples’ rights. Socio-cultural evolutionism, modern “language of savagery” (Williams) and nation-states building • Western superiority in terms of civilization shifts from religious to scientific explanation (Kehoe, Williams, Berkhofer).

18. Decolonization in Education: Taking into account: • Indigenous schooling systems before colonization (Valcarcel, Tippeconic) • Education = People’s survival (Lomawaima and McCarty) • Historical differences of each region (before/after colonization) Indigenous higher education as a continental decolonizing tool • Diverse strategies put forward • North: Sovereignty, treaty rights and Indigenous education. • Andes: Political alliances for land rights, interculturalismand plurinationalism

19. Decolonization in Education: What about decolonization in Social Sciences? European university has to give way to American University. The history of America, of the Incas here, has to be taught [and learned] by hearts, even if this means not to teach Greek history. Our Greece is preferable to any foreign Greece (José Martí, 1891; re-takenby the AmawtayWasi).

20. Research Question: • Discern the role of IHE in • making a place for Indigenous nations' history, knowledges and identities in educational institutions of the Americas; • decolonizing the relationships between nation-states and Indigenous nations. General Objective

21. Research Question: • What patterns of "Indigenizing the academy” developed by IHE institutions and programs? • Needs and objectives addressed? • Specificities in terms of knowledge practices and theories? • Challenge (or not) mainstream academy and its sociocultural theories? 1 Question and 3 sub-questions What are the levels and impacts of "Indigenizing the academy”

22. Literature Review: encircling my research subject (Wilson) • Objectives, motivations of Indigenous higher education programs and institutions • Specificities and diversity of Indigenous higher education knowledge • Indigenous academic disciplines • Epistemologies, paradigms and theoretical development • What challenges for the mainstream academy and Western social sciences?

23. Objectives, motivations of Indigenous higher education programs and institutions • Indigenizing the academy: • Following diverse steps (Tippeconninc) • As Warrior Scholarship (Alfred) • Decolonizing the academy • Overcoming barriers (AFN) • Language and culture • Socioeconomic situation and serving communities • Changing the state structure (AmawtayWasi) • Sovereignty • Knowledge systems, legal status and economic development (Brayboy) • Cultural sovereignty (Tsosie and Coffey), rhetorical sovereignty (Lyons), food sovereignty (Blain), etc. One phenomenon, multiple forms and patterns (Barnhardt, Warrior, Tippeconnic) with different objectives The conceptual tools to fulfill their objectives are important specific characteristics

24. Specificities and diversity of Indigenous higher education knowledge • NAIS organized around Indigenousness and sovereignty (Cook-Lynn): • Culture, place, philosophy • History and law • Exclusion of natural sciences (Wildcat & Pierrotti) • Indigenous knowledges in other disciplines: • ecology (Sniveley and Corsiglia) • archaeology (Yellowhorn, Harris) 1) Producing, structuring and transmitting knowledge : Indigenous academic disciplines “Indigenous knowledge” and “Indigenous difference” (Battiste and Finley)? Traditional ways of knowing? (Barnhardt)

25. Specificities and diversity of Indigenous higher education knowledge • Culturally specific (Cook-Lynn) epistemology, referring to the influence of culture and geography on the empirical knowledge, and to the interaction of spiritual, rational and empirical knowledge (Meyer, Native Hawaiian) • Pan-Indigenous (Cook-Lynn) paradigm referring to 4 philosophical dimensions: ontology, epistemology, methodology and axiology (Wilson, Cree). • Nation-to-nation (Cook-Lynn) dialogue of different rationalities built on differing worldviews and symbols (AmawtayWasi, Andes) 2) Foundational principles: Epistemologies, paradigms and theoretical development Different Indigenous “schools” or “trends” of thought? Be very careful in balancing differences and similaritiesbetween diverse Indigenous approaches to knowledge in the academy.

26. Concluding Literature Review: • IHE institutions are contributing not only to the well-being of the immediate communities they serve, but to the well-being of all humanity" (Barnhardt, 1991: 25) • Indigenous Peoples' "schools of thought" have always had something to contribute to humanity(Lomawaima and McCarty, 2006: xxi) What challenges for the mainstream academy and Western social sciences? How the development of these diverse theories and practices can change the colonial relationship established with Indigenous Nations in the Americas

27. Networks of Indigenous Universities and Colleges in the Americas But where to begin??? Trying to identify the traditions Trying to identify the networks Trying to identify the institutions 18 boxes on Indigenous Higher Education in Canada 10 boxes on Indigenous Higher Education in USA 10 boxes on Indigenous Higher Education and Indigenous activism in the Andes 6 boxes on international networks of Indigenous activism

28. Indigenous Higher Education in Canada (71 institutions that I know of): • Indigenous institutions: • First Nations University of Canada (Regina, Saskatchewan) • The Seven Generations Education Institute (Rainy Lake Tribal area, Anishinaabeg, Ontario) • Indigenous regional consortium/associations • First Nations Adult and Higher Education Consortium (10 colleges in Alberta, 1 in Manitoba) • Ontario’s Aboriginal Institutes’ Consortium (1994): (7 of Ontario’s 9 Native Institutions) • Indigenous Adult and Higher Learning Association (IAHLA, 2004), (31 institutions; BC) • ‘Mainstream’ institutions with strong Indigenous Connexions/Participation • Trent University, Ontario – Indigenous Studies Department • Cape Breton University, Nova Scotia – Unama’ki College, Department of Indigenous Studies • Cape Breton University, Nova Scotia – Integrative Science Institute • Queen’s University • Etc. • Mainstream institutions with strong presence of Indigenous scholars • University of Victoria, British Columbia • University of British Columbia • University of Saskatchewan • Etc. • Other Native/Indigenous/First Nations/First Peoples/Aboriginal/Inuit Studies programs in mainstream universities

29. Indigenous Institutions and Consortium/associations: sum-up of the characteristics 1. Embedded in precise cultures and communities. 2. Created by political indigenous organizations. 3. Emphasis placed on communities, their needs, autonomy and the learning through relationships. 4. Symbolic meanings and different forms of literacy are important. 5. Ontology, epistemology and axiology mostly explicitly presented. 6. Generally not funded by the government, except for First Nations University, or through project-based funding. 7. Recognition/accreditation mostly has to pass through partnership with mainstream universities.

30. Mainstream’ institutions with strong Indigenous Connexions/Participation: characteristics sum-up Unama'kiCollegeCape Breton University (Mi’kmaqTerritory, Sydney, Nova Scotia) 1. Program- or department- based strong emphasis on the communities served/with whom they work 2. Administrative structures including Indigenous Elders and/or community members (Councils, Committees, etc.) 3. Complementariness of Indigenous and Western knowledge. 4. Ontology, epistemology and axiology sometimes implicit 5. Generally funded and recognized/accredited by the government

31. ‘Mainstream’ institutions with strong participation of Native Scholars 1. Program-based social and political commitment towards Indigenous communities and knowledge 2. Emphasis on individuals and programs 3. No overall common ontology, epistemology, methodology, axiology, etc. 4. Special spaces (physical, intellectual, virtual) for Indigenous peoples, that cross the Faculties and departments 5. Information and diffusion projects 6. Funded and recognized by the government

32. Other Mainstream Institutions with Programs about and for Indigenous Peoples • Athabasca University (Alberta): Center for World indigenous Knowledge and Research • Brock University (Ontario): Tecumseh Centre for Aboriginal Research and Education • Nipissing University, North Bay (Ontario): Native Studies and Aboriginal Education • Algoma University, Sault Sainte-Marie (Ontario): Anishinaabemowin (Ojibwe) & Indigenous Studies; Anishinaabe Education • University of New Bruswick: Mi’kmaq-Maliseet Institute • Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John’s • Saint Thomas University (Fredericton, New-Brunswick) • Concordia University (Québec) • Ottawa University (Ontario) • University of Western Ontario • University of Waterloo (Ontario) • Laurentian University (Ontario) • Brandon University (Saskatchewan) • Etc.

33. Indigenous Higher Education in Canada some objectives according to general reports • To improve the success of the Indigenous learners: Maximizing learner potential • To recognize the parental and community involvement in the Education: maintaining cultural identity through values, belief system, history and wisdom • To strengthen partnerships between First Nations: Maintaining and developing political autonomy & financing institutions • To foster a greater appreciation and understanding by other communities: Opening a positive job market • To evaluate and influenced the post-secondary educational system and its ability for including a positive representation of First Nations

34. What about ConcordiaUniversity? First Peoples Studies Program Aboriginal Student Resource Center 1 elder in residence 2 Indigenous Faculties What changes does it make in relation to the knowledges taught in the academy? Indigenizing the academy? Decolonizing paradigms? What theories taught? How does it influence Canadian studies, anthropology, sociology, sciences (biology, etc.)?