World History AP Review

World History AP Review Foundations to 600 C.E.

Hominids Located in southern and eastern Africa, these primates lived over 3m years ago. Mary and Louis Leakey discovered the first fossil of these primates in 1974. Different from earlier primates, they walked upright and could formulate speech.

Paleolithic Era (750,000 to 250,000 years ago) During the Paleolithic period, the economy was based on hunting and gathering as this was before the establishment of agrarian practices. Paleolithic society was a collection of clans based on extended families. They followed a polytheistic faith, practiced art and music through cave paintings and the hunting and gathering was done respectively by men and women. Cave paintings from the period

Homo Sapiens Homo sapiens refers to human beings, the earliest forms of whom included Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon . They were known for their use of tools, clothing and dwellings.

Hunting and gathering Typical prior to the formation of settlements, hunting and gathering was seen in early civilizations prior to the development of established agriculture and the domestication of animals. Targeted animals could be anything that hunters were game enough (no pun intended) to tackle. The other major component of their diet was plant and vegetation.

Aborigines (c.45000 BCE) It is thought that the first Australians arrived on the continent some 50,000 years ago. Hunters and gatherers, they traveled in clans that followed a patrilineal line of descent. The passed down their heritage, culture and history through “dreaming” as part of a concept known as Dreamtime. Prior to European arrival, it is speculated that anywhere from 300,000 to one million Aborigines lived in Australia. However, disease and brutality dwindled their numbers significantly. By the turn of the 21st century, it is thought that there is about 400,000 Aborigines but their culture has been severely compromised and many have integrated into Australian society.

Neolithic Era (10000 BCE) The Neolithic period was based on the establishment of sedentary agriculture and domestication of animals around 10,000 BCE. The first of these civilizations developed in the Middle East and from there, spread to India, Europe and East Asia. The increase of food supply increased population. Jericho in modern day Israel was one of the first Neolithic villages. In these villages, a specialization of labor developed since everyone was not needed to grow food. As the pursuit of individual professions created its own wealth, it also created classes within society. With the move away from agriculture, women suffered as men relegated them to the home. A Neolithic home uncovered in Scotland’s Orkney Islands.

Jomon culture (7500-250 BCE) The Jomon culture was a Mesolithic culture most known for their pottery. Most of the artifacts and archeological evidence of the culture have been uncovered in the northern island of Hokkaido but also seen as far south as the Ryukyu Islands. They lived in sunken pits and subsisted on hunting and gathering. The pottery, while simplistic in methodology, was extremely imaginative and decorative. The modern-day Ainu of Hokkaido consider themselves descendents of the Jomon culture. One of the most famous and intricate products of Jomon culture is the flamed earthenware pottery.

Çatal Hüyük (c.6500-5800 BCE) Found in modern-day Turkey near the modern city of Çumra, Çatal Hüyük was a Neolithic settlement that existed between c. 6500-c.5800 BCE. The settlement was organized along lines of development and was known for its paintings and reliefs of hunting scenes, as well as geometric designs. Based on agriculture and cattle, it is considered one of the largest settlements from the period.

Sumer (6000-2000 BCE) Sumer made up the southern Mesopotamia region and is known as one of the earliest known civilizations. First settled by a non-Semitic group called the Ubaidians, the Sumerians arrived around 3300 BCE. , creating the world’s first known cities. The legacy of the Sumerians include innovations such as the first wheeled vehicle, the potter’s wheel, a system of writing known as cuneiform and a written code of law. As city-states, they came in and out of independence, periodically falling under the control of other civilizations such as Elam, Akkad and ultimately the Babylonians.

Minoan Civilization (3000-1100 BCE) A civilization that arose upon the island of Crete, their economic and political power was based on their usage of the sea. The center of their culture was the city of Knosses and the civilization was named after King Minos. It was the first known civilization in the Aegean area. The civilization was greatly known for its influences upon the Mycenaean culture on the Greek islands and mainland, its cities and palaces, extensive trading network and the use of writing (known by archeologists as Linear A and Linear B).

Bantu Migrations (3,000 BCE-500 CE) The migrations refer to the movement of Africans between 3,000BCE to 500 CE. They spoke languages associated with the Niger-Congo region and today, these languages and their offshoots are referred to as Bantu languages. The Bantu created decentralized societies that were ruled by a council of elders with a chief as its head, used iron tools for agriculture and often fought with other tribes that led to the creation of organized military units

The Bronze Age (c.3000-1800 BCE) The Bronze Age period is associated with the development of metallurgy and the use of copper. People of the period later combined copper with tin to create bronze. Tools made of this material first originated in Mesopotamia around 4000 BCE.

Yellow River Civilization This term refers to a series of civilizations (dynasties) that emerged from the Huang He (Yellow River). The hued river gets its name from the loess soil that blows in from the north and Mongolia. Its regular flooding has earned the river the nickname of China's Sorrow due to the amount of people who have perished over the centuries.

Phoenicians A city-state society based on shipping and trade, the Phoenicians were found along the Mediterranean coast of modern-day Lebanon and Israel. Their greatest achievement however, might have been in the area of writing, in particular, cuneiform. Because of their prolific trading, their alphabet was diffused throughout the region and ultimately, it would serve as the basis of the Latin alphabet.

Mesopotamia This is the name of the region between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers in modern day Iraq. The region was the origin of world’s first cities (Ur and Babylon), writing (cuneiform and pictographs) and large public works like canals and bridges.

Nile River Civilization (2700s-1700s BCE) The Nile River civilization was based on agricultural settlements around 5500 BCE. It would eventually grow into the Egyptian society and the uniting of upper (southern) and lower (northern) regions by King Menes. The society, religiously, was a polytheistic one based on many gods related to the world around them (sun, etc.). The advancements of the society was based on medical achievements (mummies), writing (hieroglyphics) and architecture (pyramids).

Kush A part of the ancient kingdom of Nubia in modern-day Sudan, it existed between the 11th-century BCE to the 4th-century CE. During the mid-8th-century, it conquered Upper Egypt, going as far north as Thebes . Later rulers finished the job, reaching into Lower Egypt. Upon their defeat at the hands of the Assyrians, it lost control over Egypt. Upon its lost of Egypt, the Kush switched capitals from Napata, in the central part of its territory, to the Meroe, to the southeast. However, in the 4th-century CE, the Ethiopians overtook the capital and the citizens abandoned the city, leaving for areas near Lake Chad to the west.

Akkad (c.2300-c.2100 BCE) Found in the area of Mesopotamia, it was comprised of city-states and reached its initial expansion and growth under Sargon (around 2340 BCE). The civilization was overran by tribes from the nearby mountains, causing a power vacuum that created a chaotic period in Mesopotamia. Various other powers began taking over the region, including Elam and finally, Babylon. Their Semitic language, Akkadian, became a literary language and their rule was known for the great art produced.

Xia Dynasty (c.2070-c.1600 BCE) Because no archeological evidence have been found related to this dynasty, it is considered a quasi-mythical one. Based on the Huang He, the Xia, led by its founder Yu, attempted to organize the region and the lives of its people, creating a dynastic rule in China. Yu is famous for public works projects like irrigation and flood control efforts.

Indus River Civilization (2,000s BCE) Originating along the banks of the...duh...Indus River, the two city states of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro made up the essence of the civilization. The cities, as well as other smaller villages, were highly organized and uniform in structure and material used. This fact suggest a standardization of weights and measures. Remnants of the society are found as far away as Egypt which would suggest a pretty extensive trading network. Little is known, in particular reasons for its decline because the language used has not yet been deciphered.

Harappa and Mohenjo Daro Harappa was a key settlement of the Indus River valley civilization and found along the Ravi River in modern-day west Pakistan. It was inhabited between 3200-1500 BCE and was characterized by high brick walls along the perimeter. The city was organized and well laid out and some archeologists believe there are connections with the Indian and Sumerian cultures. It lied considerably north of the other great city of the civilization – Mohenjo-Daro. Along the Indus River, it (see picture) was the largest city of the civilization and thought to serve as a capital. It too was highly organized and contained ornate baths, a granary and two halls of assembly.

Babylon Located south of the modern city of Baghdad, it is one of the most famous cities of ancient times. It was the capital of Babylonia and was the main commercial center along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It was the largest city in the world at the time. Around since the 3rd millennium BCE, its golden age was under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled from 605 to c. 561 BCE. It was destroyed twice – by Sennacherib in 689 BCE and against by Alexander the Great in 331 BCE. What we know about the city comes from the Greek historian Herodotus, who used his understanding of cuneiform texts to piece its history together. It is known for its ziggurats and the Hanging Gardens, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.

Hammurabi’s Code Hammurabi was a leader of the city-state of Babylon around 1750 BCE. The code is a collection of legal decisions and the law is known as an improvement on and development beyond tribal customs and traditions. It set the standard for the collection of written rather than arbitrary rules to government society. “The strong shall not injure the weak, and the orphan and the widow shall receive justice.“ Hammurabi’s Code A relief showing Hammurabi delivering his codified law

Aryans Streaming out of Asia Minor, the Aryans entered into modern-day northern India around 1500 BCE. They were a society that was based on the raising of animals and did not have extensive experience with agriculture. Their society was based on oral tradition and their history was passed down in the same way. As a result of coming into contact with "inferiors", the Aryans set up a strict caste system to limit interaction between them and the aboriginal peoples of the region, namely the Dravidians.

Vedic Age This period refers to the portion of Indian history ranging from 1500 to 500 BCE and represent the period when the Vedas were written. The Vedas were a collection of prayers and songs honoring Aryan gods. This period is characterized by the nascent stages of an economic switch between herding to sedentary agricultural communities. Vishnu dispensing advice to a solider in the Bhagavad Gita

Hinduism One of the world's oldest organized religions, it stemmed out of the Indus River valley and is most associated with India. One of its treasured texts, the Bhagavad Gita outlined the requirements of Hindus as people and their pathway to salvation. Hindus, in their daily lives, stress the notion of obeying the law, honest economic ventures, embracing pleasure and the ultimate release from an existence of reincarnation – moksha or the liberation from life. Hindu society is broken down into castes and one's movement through reincarnation through the castes marks the progress a Hindu is making towards paradise. The many forms of God in Hinduism is highlighted in this painting

Zoroastrianism To many religious scholars, it was the world's first monotheistic religions and was based on a prophet named Zarathustra who proclaimed the one god whom he called Ahura Mazda. Zarathustra preached that the world and its benefits were for Ahura Mazda's followers to enjoy but people should only enjoy life in moderation. The notions of good and evil spelled out by the prophet directly influenced Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

Shang Dynasty (c.1700-1046 BCE) The earliest of the Chinese dynasties, popping up around 1750 BCE, the Shang made good use of bronze as a source of income and employment. Its military was the source of its power and its surplus of crops ensured its survival.

The Hittites (1650-1180 BCE) The empire of the Hittites experienced two periods of rule – the Old Kingdom ruled from c.1650-1500 BCE and the New Kingdom reigned from c.1350-1180 BCE. It was centered on the peninsula of Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) and extended south into northern Syria. The Hittites were borrowers, taking the best from other civilizations they conquered or encountered. They were militaristic and their battle with the Egyptians at Kadesh is considered one of the greatest battles of the ancient world. Hittite rulers were despotic and seen as representative of the gods. The society was agrarian and feudal, known for its iron works. The empire fell quickly and is thought to have been caused by a large influx of “sea-peoples” and the Phrygians.

Mycenaeans (1600-900 BCE) Based on an ancient Greek city-state, Mycenae was located amidst rocks and cliffs which allowed for impressive stone forts and palaces. Each palace is thought to have housed a king of the local region. It is believed that Agamemnon was its ruler. Their fight with Troy was the stuff of legends – really, the legend is detailed in Homer's Iliad. A death mask of a Mycenaean king

Akhenaton Best known for his implementation of a one-god belief system and his wife, Nefertiti, he came to power when Egypt was in one of its powerful periods, controlling Palestine, Phoenicia and Nubia. Moving his capital from Thebes to modern-day Tell el-Amarna to escape the power of his religious adversaries, he was a patron of art that gave details of ordinary life. His administrative abilities suffered due to his concentration on religious changes. He was succeeded by his sons-in-law, first Smenkhkare but more famously Tutankhamen. However, upon Tut’s death, the army took over and the religion was abandoned.

Olmecs (1300-400 BCE) With a name stemming from the rubber trees of Central America, the Olmecs were centered in cities like La Venta and Tres Zapotes which means three-something in Spanish, I think. Their most impressive achievement were the intricate irrigation systems that allowed for a successful harvest. Ruled with a strong hand, the Olmecs built various public buildings like temples, altars and pyramids. A drawing of one of the massive stone heads left by the Olmecs

Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE) Usurping their power from the Shang, the Zhou saw their rule as connected the goings on in heaven. The concept that their rulers had a mandate from heaven suggested divine approval of their rule. However, according to the same concept, what the gods grant can also be taken away if the ruler conducts himself in an unworthy way. It is known for its cultural achievements that stretched from literature to religion, to history to philosophy and morals.

Polynesia The islands of Polynesia, and the rest of the region, are thought to have been first populated by those coming eastward from New Guinea, departing around 1500 BCE. These amazing sailors were aided by double-hulled ships and extended, in their travels, beyond what anyone else had achieved. They settled the “Polynesian triangle” by 1000 CE. The historical heritage of the peoples of this region are tied in to the people of Southeast Asia. However, these speculations cannot totally be held for certain.

Athens (1000s-300s BCE) The Parthenon – Athens, Greece The city-state of Athens and its reputation as the beginnings of democracy was the product a ruler named Solon who softened previously harsh laws, gave power to all members of society who owned property and created a limited democracy.

Sophocles His fame was garnered from his talents as a dramatist, a contemporary of Aeschylus and Euripides. Not only a writer, he was also a priest and an elected general. His advancements included the introduction of the third actor (previously, two was standard), the expansion of the chorus and writing self-contained tragedies. He is most known for Oedipus Tyrannus, Antigone and Trachiniae.

Sparta Part of classical Greece, the city-state was known for its militaristic attitude towards neighbors (not surprisingly, most of Sparta's neighbors did not like them much). Theirs was a society built around military service, with near slaves called helots doing much of the agrarian work. The Spartans were known for their simple lifestyle (hence the word, Spartan, to describe an ascetic lifestyle). Boys were brought up away from the family, within the military. Women were responsible for breeding strong children to serve in the Spartan military. Artist rendition of Spartan combat formations

Olympics A stone relief showing Greek wrestlers during the early Games. It was the most famous of the Greek festivals. Among the Greek city-states, athletic representatives met to compare speed, strength and skill in various events. These events included running, boxing, wrestling (no WWE stuff around here), javelin and discus throwing. This festival was held every four years, hence the spacing of events today. After about a century, the festival disappeared altogether and the Games were not re-instituted until the end of the 1800s.

Assyrian Empire (1000s-600s BCE) The Assyrian Empire stretched from Anatolia (Turkey) in the north to Egypt in the south. Their greatest threat was militarily with leaders based on meritocracy rather than nepotism.

Macedonian Empire (800s-146 BCE) A contemporary civilization with the ancient Greeks, it supplied them with natural resources in exchange for some of the agricultural delights of Greece such as wine and olives. Alexander the Great, ruler of Macedonia, would create an empire that included nearly the entire Mediterranean area including Syria and Egypt. The death of Alexander would precipitate the fragmenting of the empire into three parts, each part going to one of his generals.

Epic of Gilgamesh (800s BCE) One of the famous ancient stories, the Epic of Gilgamesh is about a man’s attempt to conquest his environment and his search for immortality. Gilgamesh is the lord of Uruk and a friend of Enkidu. Most famously, the story includes one part speaking of a flood that covered much of the then known world that many have equated to the Biblical story.

Etruscans (c.700-c.400 BCE) Etruria was a civilization that reached its height before the Romans, in the 700s BCE. Historians are not sure where they came from but by the 800s BCE, they had control over Tuscany and pushed north to the Po valley and south to control Rome. It were the Etruscans who built the first public works in Rome. The civilization was agrarian but also had a commercial sector of their economy. Their wall frescos and realistic tomb portraits were, along with other cultural traits, adopted by the Romans. However, by the end of the 700s BCE, outside pressure from the Greeks, Romans and the Gauls weakened Etruria. By 509 BCE, the Romans expelled the Etruscans from the region. Etruscan territory (in red)

Chavín The term refers to a cult that rose to prominence during the last millennium before the common era. Originating in Peru, it peaked around 800 BCE and seemed to surround and place great importance on maize. The cult was known for its architecture, fishing nets, the usage of certain minerals like gold and copper and the intricate art. A stirrup spout bottle made by the Chavín

Daoism Yet another idea of how to fix the mess that China was in during the Warring States period, Daoism (also seen in texts as Taoism) contrasted Confucianism by suggesting that seeking harmony with the natural forces of the world was the way to achieve peace and order. Dao refers to the way of nature - the opposing forces that coarse through the planet. It is these opposing forces, not representative as good and evil as commonly believed, that must be kept in balance. If people stopped trying for personal success and achieve balance by living simply, happiness could be achieved. It is from Daoism that we get the concept of "less is more." The symbol of balance – the ying and yang – within Daoism

Confucius He was a Chinese philosopher moved to figure out a way to create order in the midst of the Warring States period. His ideas were based on the notion of relationships that, if in order and correct, would fix society: parent and child; husband and wife; older and younger sibling; older and younger friend; ruler and his subjects. His sayings, captured by his disciples in the Analects, stands as a way to live one's life - also referred to as Confucianism. He stressed courteousness, loyalty, respectfulness and stick-to-itness. Above all, he sought to have people exercise moral integrity and good judgment. “The expectations of life depend upon diligence; the mechanic that would perfect his work must first sharpen his tools.”

Roman Republic (510-27 BCE) Roman Empire (27 BCE-14 CE) By the defeat of the Etruscans, the Romans set up a republic around 509 BCE. While the patrician class controlled the government, the plebs had power to elect as well. Over time, the plebs pushed for and were granted more rights but the Senate grew in power as well, leading to expansion. It first consolidated control over Italy and then began taking over the rest of the Mediterranean world, taking out Carthage during the Punic Wars. However, as money entered Rome, only a few received it and class tensions rose, culminating with the uprising led by Spartacus. The retirement of Sulla brought to power Pompey and with his general, Julius, they worked together for a decade before Julius set his army against Pompey. By 48 BCE, Julius Caesar was the master of Rome. The assassination of Caesar created anarchy. It would be Octavian (Augustus) who, upon defeat of Antony, would be the first emperor of the Roman Empire. While the PaxRomana followed, it would not last past Augustus. A series of cruel rulers and the introduction of Christianity began changing Rome. While a change of fortune happened under Trajan (98-117), too many forces were at work to take down Rome. Incompetent ruler, internal strife and outside pressures finally brought down Rome. Rome split into east (later Byzantine) and Rome. The empire finally death knell occurred with a defeat at the hands of the Goths in 476. The last emperor was, oddly enough, named Romulus Augustulus.

Roman Senate The Roman Senate was the main governing and advisory council, as part of the Roman constitution. Senators were appointed by consuls, serving for life which granted them great power. After 81 BCE, it became the chief governing body as well as controlled the republic’s finances. Augustus gave the body judicial and legislative responsibilities. Most of the members of the Senate were large and powerful landowners. Into the common era, the Senate began losing power and by 500s, it ceased to exist as any influential governing body.

Persia Classical Persia refers to the region that included modern-day Iran to the east and Turkey to the west. Its government was unique with educated and qualified officials making up the bureaucracy. The government used slaves to construct a great deal of public works like palaces, exterior walls, roads and irrigation systems. The slave population was made up of either prisoners of war or those who failed to adhere to the laws of the empire. Its most known and competent rulers included Cyrus, Darius (right) and Xerxes. Its economy was based on agriculture as it controlled fertile regions like Mesopotamia, Anatolia (Turkey) and the northern alluvial plains of India. The empire's trade was helped along by trade routes that connected the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea. Large urban centers like Babylon were also financial and commerce centers.

Cyrus the Great The founder of the Achaemenian Empire and grandson of Cyrus I, his empire was based out of Persia and stretched to the Mediterranean. He was also as inclined to conquer by diplomacy as by warfare. According to the Bible, he liberated the Jews who were being held captive in Babylon. He met his end against the nomads of central Asia. The culture and civilization he created would last another two centuries and was a strong influence on the Greeks as well as Alexander the Great. Persians and later Iranians consider him a hero with almost religious connotation.

World History AP Review