Communication In Negotiation

1. Communication In Negotiation Negotiation IS A Communication Process

2. What’s Communicated? • Offers and counteroffers (positions) • Interests (needs and desires) • BATNA and other alternatives • “Social accounts” -- explanations, attributions, or “causal accounts” that we’ll share publicly • Mitigating circumstances • Exonerating circumstances • Reframing explanations • Information can be a weakness in some (rare) cases, but generally more information is advantageous

3. Different Problems in Different Stages of Negotiation • Beginning: Perceptual errors, attribution biases, framing • Middle: Offering sequences and issue development, evolution of framework and detail, use of questions • End: Decision making, avoiding traps, achieving closure • Note: Different problems tend to occur in particular stages, but not always

4. Beginning Stage Problems • Delineation and diagnosis of: issues, agendas, and bargaining range • Social exchange to develop relationship • Role of perception • “Sense-making” involves numerous stimuli • Selective perception is essential; perceptual organization (or “cognitive schemes”) are used to determine responses (Remember the k question? -- question illustrates how we classify info.)

5. Negotiation Process and Perceptual Distortions • Nature of negotiation process affects perceptions • Collaboration: Increases sensitivity to commonalities and similarities • Competition: Minimizes similarities and increases sensitivity to differences • Perceptual distortions • Stereotyping -- assigning many attributes based on one • Halo effects (or “pitchfork” effects) • Projection -- assuming they see things as we do • Selective perception (or perceptual defense) -- screening out unwelcome or nonconfirming info

7. Framing: How We See Issues Or Events • Cognitive heuristics (rules of thumb) • Frame categories -- recall main types: Substantive, Loss/gain, Characterization (of others’ behaviors and outcomes), Process, Aspiration (needs and interests), Outcome (preferred solutions), Evidentiary • Categories of experience • Multiple types commonly apply at once • Reframing, helping to reframe, and establishing common frame(s) may be necessary

8. Irrational escalation of commitment Mythical “fixed pie” beliefs Anchoring and adjustment Framing Availability of information The “winner’s curse” Overconfidence The law of small numbers Biased causal accounts or erroneous attributions Ignoring others’ cognitions Reactive devaluation Cognitive Biases in Negotiation(Sometimes Called Negotiation “Traps”)

9. Attribution (Causal Account) Biases/Errors • Systematic tendencies to make unwarranted inferences, assignment of causes • Examples • False consensus • Base-rate fallacy • Self-serving bias -- “You’re lucky, I’m good”

10. Summary of Perceptual Errors • Frequently at the heart of breakdowns • Probably most problematic in established relations with “historical baggage” • Example: Union and management will have to work hard to establish a cooperative relation after a bitter conflict

11. Middle Stage ProblemsFour Key Elements • Offer sequences • Framework evolution and detail • Language • Listening and questioning

12. Offers and Frameworks • Offer sequences involve three assumptions • Dynamism -- things will change • Interaction -- parties & other factors will affect interaction • Issue development -- issues will change via argument, logic, interaction • Framework & detail -- evolving a general formula • Diagnosis of the problem, and ID need for change • Develop formula for perceiving, criteria for resolution • Operational detail for particulars within basic formula

13. Listening and Questions • Are perceptual and communication distortions the biggest causes of breakdowns? • Using questions (see Table 5.1 for examples) • Good questions can yield much useful information • Manageable versus unmanageable questions • Questions to manage difficult situations or stalled negotiations (see Table 5.2 for examples); e.g., “Why is this issue important to you?” or “Why is that option not acceptable?” • Control through questions, not by talking

14. How Negotiators Communicate How May Be As Important As What Is Said • Language at two levels -- meaning of the message from both • Logical (the what or content) • Pragmatic (style, semantics, and syntax -- the how) • Example on “linguistic dimensions of threats” • Polarized language (we good, you bad) • Verbal immediacy (you must act now) • Language intensity (e.g., feelings, profanity) • Lexical diversity (broad rich vocabulary conveys competence, comfort) • High-power language style • Credible or compelling threats tend to use: Negative polarization of opponent and their position, high immediacy, high intensity, high lexical diversity, and a high-power style • Jargon, idioms, colloquialisms, sports metaphors are problematic • An obvious problem across cultures (more later) • Maybe a greater problem between sexes, an everyday pervasive problem

15. Active Listening • Active listening is distinct from “passive” or “acknowledgement” listening; it’s more active (duh!) • Elements of active listening (aka reflective responding) • Emphasis on listening, not talking • Respond to personal r.t. abstract points, including feelings and beliefs • Follow rather than lead, exploring their frame of reference, at least until we understand their position • Clarify their message rather than cross-examine or assert our own view about what they should think or feel • Respond to the feelings in their communication • Note: Listening doesn’t always mean agreement

16. Role Reversal • In some ways, a more extreme step than active listening; going beyond understanding how they see it and trying to see it their way, even arguing from their perspective • Key question: What would make me happy if I were them? • Research findings • Produces cognitive and attitudinal change • Works best with fundamental compatibility (win-win potential) • It can work, but not necessarily more effective than other techniques

17. The End Stage • Avoiding mistakes • Achieving satisfactory closure in a constructive manner

18. Avoiding Mistakes • Four key stages of decision making • Framing the issues • Gathering intelligence • Coming to conclusions • Learning from feedback

19. Plunging in Overconfidence in own judgment (underconfidence can also be a problem) Frame blindness Lack of frame control Shortsighted shortcuts Shooting from the hip Group failure Fooling yourself about feedback Not keeping track Failure to audit one’s own decision processes Avoiding Mistakes: 10 Common Decision Traps

20. Achieving Closure • Recall some specific tactics for DB closure were noted earlier (e.g., give ‘em a choice) • Advice from sales negotiation field • Know when to shut up • Beware of “garbage and the garbage truck” • Watch out for last minute hitches involving constituents and be prepared to handle them • Nitpicking • Second-guessing

21. Preamble on intent? All issues of interest addressed? Proposals workable? All affected parties consulted? Is agreement clear on each point? Does the agreement make “total sense”? Is it reasonable and equitable? Have you considered barriers to fulfilling the agreement? Vehicle for managing disagreements? Achieving Closure: Checklist of Criteria