Ethical Theories

Ethical Theories Jessica Purath Lindsey Rasmussen Douglas Sass Amber Schmidt-Bedker Wendy Sloan

Ethical Dilemma Sulina just returned from a long day of shopping in another city, an hour’s drive from her home. She purchased several things and as she is unpacking her purchases, she realizes the clerk included a fifty dollar item of clothing in one of the bags that Sulina didn’t pay for. What should Sulina do about the unpaid-for purchase?

Utilitarian Theory A normative ethical theory where right and wrong is determined solely by the consequences of choosing one behavior or action over another. It moves beyond the scope of self-interest and takes into consideration the interests of other people. (Cavalier, 2006)

Utilitarian TheoryValues • Justice: the fairest choice in the eyes of the law • Fairness: wanting the best possible choice for the group as a whole • Equality: wanting everyone to have a fair choice or chance • Concern for others: wanting the best possible outcome for society as a whole

Utilitarian TheoryVocabulary • Fecundity: will more of the same follow? • Purity: pleasure will not be followed by pain • Hedonism: pursuit of or devotion to pleasure and self-gratification • Utility: concern for maximizing the value of the universe • Act utilitarianism • When faced with a choice, the principle of utility is applied to each alternative • The right act is defined as that which brings the best results (or least amount of bad results) • Rule utilitarianism • The principle of utility is used to determine the validity of rules of conduct or moral principles • Right and wrong are defined as following or breaking those rules or principles (Cavalier, 2006)

Utilitarian TheoryContributors • Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) • Developed the principle of utility • Pleasure and pain play a fundamental role in human life • Approval or disproval of an action is based on the amount of pleasure or pain its consequences bring • Good equates with pleasure and evil with pain • Pleasure and pain can be quantified and are thus measurable • Introduced criteria to measure pleasure and pain (Cavalier, 2006)

Utilitarian TheoryContributors • John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) adjusted the hedonistic qualities of Bentham’s philosophy by emphasizing the following • The quantity of happiness is what is central to utilitarianism not the quantity of pleasure • Quantities cannot be quantified but distinctions can be made between ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ pleasure • Utilitarianism refers to the Greatest Happiness Principle because it seeks to promote happiness for the most amount of people (Cavalier, 2006)

Utilitarian TheoryStrengths • Utilitarians can compare past situations with what is currently happening to decide what choice is the most useful for the most people, regardless of personal feelings or the law • Rule utilitarians want the best conceivable result for the most amount of people but they take into consideration people’s feelings (kindness) and they respect the law (justice), all of which is better for society

Utilitarian TheoryCriticisms • As humans we are not capable of knowing the exact outcome of a situation. • It is highly unlikely that all people will devote their lives to helping other people for the common good of all • Not all Utilitarians are concerned with justice as long as an action benefits most people • There exists the potential of conflicting or counteracting laws, especially in rule utilitarianism, thus making an ethically correct answer difficult to determine (if one exists at all).

Utilitarian TheorySulina’s Dilemma According to Utilitarianism, Sulina should return the unpaid-for item of clothing because this would be the best possible outcome for society. As a result of this choice, Sulina would be acting in accordance with the law (justice) and could help the employee not get in trouble for his/her mistake (kindness).

Rights Theory • A right is a justified claim that individuals or groups can make upon others wherein the right of one implies the duties of another. Typically moral rights have four features; natural, universal, equal, and inalienable. (Fieser, 2009) • In rights theory, rights are determined to be ethically correct and valid because the majority of people accept them as so. As a result, society protects these rights and gives them high priority. (Rainbow, 2002)

Rights TheoryValues • Justice: each person gets what s/he deserves • Rights: a justified claim that individuals or groups can make upon others or society • Duty: an obligation one person has to another • Equality: rights are the same for all people, regardless of gender, race, etc. • Validity: having a premise from which a conclusion may logically derived

Rights TheoryVocabulary • Right: a justified claim that individuals or groups can make upon others or society (Edwards, 2003) • Correlativity of rights and duties: the rights of one person imply the duties of another • Features of moral rights • Natural: not invented or created by government • Universal: are the same across different societies • Equal: rights are the same for all people • Inalienable: cannot give our rights over to another person (Cavalier, 2006)

Rights TheoryContributors • Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) • Conceived natural rights as an extension of man’s “state of nature” and argued the essential human right was to use power as a means of self-preservation • Further stipulated that humans won’t follow the laws of nature without first being subjected to a sovereign power • John Locke (1632-1704) argued that our natural rights, laws of nature given to us by God, shouldn’t harm anyone’s life, health, liberty, or possessions • Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) claimed to derive natural rights from reason alone • Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) maintained that we derive more specific rights from our natural ones, including rights of property, movement, speech, and religious expression (Fieser, 2009)

Rights TheoryStrengths • Rights provide protection for life, health, liberty, and property and thus provide a moral framework for law • Moral, legal, and institutional rules are developed to distinguish valid rights from those which are invalid • Rights and duties are correlative which provides clarity for action • This theory is widely accepted and therefore can provide a common basis for discussing ethical problems (Edwards, 2003)

Rights TheoryCriticisms • This theory is complicated by the fact that society has to determine what rights to uphold and what rights to give its citizens • Determining rights requires society to first decide what its goals and ethical priorities are • As a result, rights theory must be used in addition to another which establishes and explains the goals and priorities of society (Rainbow, 2002)

Rights TheorySulina’s Dilemma According to Rights Theory, Sulina should bring the unpaid-for item of clothing back to the store. She should do this because society’s goal is to have working order and no theft. Sulina should bring the item back because she did not pay for it. Furthermore, the employee has a right to make an honest mistake and it follows that Sulina has a duty to inform the employee of his/her mistake so s/he can learn from the experience and not make the same mistake again.

Fairness/Justice Theory The theory of justice as fairness and a form of social contract theory. Essentially, in the original position, behind the veil of ignorance, the rational choice of fundamental principles for society would be those which provide the highest minimum standards of justice for all people. (Kay, 1997)

Fairness/Justice TheoryValues • Fairness: the ability to make specific judgments about something particular; the ability to judge without referring to feelings or interests • Justice: giving each person what s/he deserves (i.e. “their due”); used to refer to a standard of what is right • Liberty: the freedom from control and restrictions • Equality: the existence of being equal to others

Fairness/Justice TheoryVocabulary • Equal Liberty Principle • When someone has more of something it means someone else has lost an equivalent amount • One principle of justice = equality • Veil of ignorance • Not knowing who we are or where our standing in the social hierarchy is • Main distinguishing feature of the original position • Original position: a fair and impartial perspective required to reason about the principles of justice • Difference Principle • Behind a veil of ignorance we try to make sure that any inequalities which arise bring those least well-off, up as far as possible • A second, more subtle principle of justice (Weston, 2008, p.143-144)

Fairness/Justice TheoryContributors • John Rawls (1921-2002) • Author of the classic work A Theory of Justice where he developed the concept of justice as fairness • Key components of his theory include the veil of ignorance and original position • Both integral in determining the construction of a fair society without any preconceived notions or prejudices (Wenar, 2012) • Envisioned a society of free citizens holding basic equal rights cooperating with one another within an egalitarian system Fairness regardless of social status is emphasized • Conservatives have argued that the American political system gives everyone an equal chance and that most would choose this system from behind a veil of ignorance (Travis, 2010)

Fairness/Justice TheoryStrengths • The two principles of justice (Equal Liberty Principle and the Difference Principle) mean that everyone benefits from cooperation • These principals also ensure a sense of self-respect (an important good) through the respect for others (Chilton, 2005)

Fairness/Justice TheoryCriticisms • People cannot really forget who they are and what society is like, thus any conclusions reached from the original position or from behind the veil of ignorance will be influenced by self-interest • Primary concern is social institutions and the equal distribution of goods

Fairness/Justice TheorySulina’s Dilemma According to one interpretation of this theory, Sulina would bring the unpaid-for item back to the store. She would put her feelings aside as well as any thoughts of what she has to gain by keeping the item, and look at the situation from behind a veil of ignorance. Essentially she would take a step back and try to consider the situation from the perspective of what would she do if she didn’t know which side of the issue she were on – the person given an extra item or the employee who has made a mistake. After thoughtful consideration she would decide that the just and fair thing to do is bring the item back.

Care Based Theory The moral concern of attending to and meeting the needs of people we take responsibility for. This theory values the emotions and relational capabilities which help the morally concerned person – the caregiver – determine what would be in the best interest of the person(s) s/he is caring for. (Bagnoli, 2006)

Care Based TheoryValues • Concern for others : looking out for the welfare of others and loving them as we love ourselves • Relationship: being connected to another person • Responsibility: having the duty of dealing with something; being accountable for our behavior • Best interest of others: being responsible for taking action we think is the most advantageous for others in any given situation

Care Based TheoryVocabulary • Interdependence: a reciprocal relationship between at least two individuals who depend on one another to get their needs met • Caring for: face-to-face encounters where one person takes care of another • Caring about: something more general that takes us into the public realm • An example: caring about people who are going hungry and wanting to do something about it, like start a food pantry • According to Noddings, this is the foundation upon which our sense of justice is built on (Smith, 2004)

Care Based TheoryContributors • Nel Noddings (1929-present) • In her first major work Caring (1984) she explores a “feminine approach to ethics and moral education” • Believes care is basic to all human life and all people want to be cared for • Also asserts that women are guided by ‘natural’ caring and this is a significant aspect of their experiences • Concludes ‘natural’ care is essentially a moral attitude – “a longing for goodness that arises out of the experience or memory of being cared for” • More recently has highlighted the differences between the ‘caring for’ and the ‘caring about’ • Argues ‘caring about’ needs more attention because it is a significant force in society • Concludes ‘caring about’ is “the foundation for our sense of justice” (Smith, 2004)

Care Based TheoryContributors • Carol Gilligan (1936-present) • Founder of “difference feminism” • Believes women have different moral and psychological tendencies than men • Men think in terms of rules and justice • Whereas women tend to think in terms of caring and relationships • Outlines three stages of moral development that women go through • Moral thinking begins with selfishness • The “conventional” middle stage is the opposite: self-sacrifice • Final stage is where women find a balance between self and others and understand how they are intertwined with others (i.e. an ethics of relationships) (Weston, 2008, p.200)

Care Based TheoryStrengths • Highlights the fact that people, especially women, think about others in a humane and caring way • The validity of emotions, feelings, and virtues in ethics is recognized • Particular attention is given to the family and has brought the home to the forefront of moral discourse • Starts its reasoning from the moral obligation to meet the needs of others instead from some universal principle (Noda, 2001)

Care Based TheoryCriticisms • The concept of care, which is central to the ethics of care, is vague and may require an external principle to determine whether the care is right or wrong • Care ethics cannot solve the problem of the conflicts of virtues, a problem in all virtue ethics • There isn’t a mechanism to deal with feelings of vengeance (Noda, 2001)

Care Based TheorySulina’s Dilemma According to this theory, Sulina should take the unpaid-for item back to the store. This decision is based on Sulina’s desire to do what is in the best interest of the employee who mistakenly gave her an unpaid-for item. Sulina doesn’t want the employee to get into any trouble for his/her mistake and wants to continue to have a good customer-employee relationship.

Virtue Theory This theory is based on traits. It is the belief that virtues are the kinds of character traits we should seek and sustain, perhaps because they originate from something deep within human nature or the world. It is thought that there exists a relationship between virtues and happiness: maybe virtues make us happy simply because they are virtues. (Weston, 2008, p.173)

Virtue TheoryValues • Commitment: being dedicated to a particular behavior or course of action • Rational self-regulation • The ability to discern an appropriate response or course of action when faced with extreme emotion or behavior • The ability to follow the middle path, that of moderation

Virtue TheoryVocabulary • Virtues • The appropriate, rational middle between extremes of emotion, behavior, or action • Character traits that allow us to act in ways that develop positive and good morals, values, and attitude • Habit that once acquired become characteristic of a person • Vice • Excessive emotion , behavior, or action • A practice, behavior, or habit considered immoral, depraved, or degrading in society • Examples are insensitivity, discontent, insatiability, willful ignorance, denial, and bad temper • Defect: too little emotion, behavior, or action (Weston, 2008, p.172-174)

Virtue TheoryContributors • Aristotle (834-322 BCE) • Believed everything in the world has a distinct and essential function, a function which in turn determines its admirable traits (i.e. virtues) • Suggested the characteristic which defines human function is rational self-regulation, the function which in turn determines our moral virtues (Weston, 2008, p.174)

Virtue TheoryContributors • Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) • Borrowed Aristotle’s “logic of virtue” • Derived virtue from human activity or function • However, understood human activity in very different terms • According to Aquinas, “reason is not an end in itself” • Rather, reason is a means to better understand ourselves and God • Believes our ultimate purpose is “communion with God, as far as we can achieve it in this life” • Added the virtues of faith, hope, and charity to the “natural” virtues like justice and temperance (Weston, 2008, p.176-177)

Virtue TheoryStrengths • Virtues are beneficial and not just because they’re admirable traits; virtues are valuable • They’re socially and ethically valuable and seen as positive characteristics of people • They’re valuable because of the good or positive consequences they tend to bring with them • We should cultivate virtuous dispositions because such dispositions tend to maximize benefits and positive outlooks of people

Virtue TheoryCriticisms • There exists a potential difficulty in establishing the nature of virtues • People from different cultures and societies often have differing opinions on what constitutes a virtue • Virtues are considered ideal character traits and may conflict with one another

Virtue TheorySulina’s Dilemma According to Virtue Theory, Sulina should return the item of clothing that she didn’t pay for but was mistakenly placed in her shopping bag. Returning the item would make her a morally good and virtuous individual. By returning the item, she would appear honest and caring, character traits which are deeply valued in our society.

Divine Command “What’s good is good because God says so. God’s commanding something defines it as good” (Weston, 2008, p.49). Divine Command essentially teaches that something (i.e. action, behavior, choice, etc.) is good because God demands it to be done and evil because God forbids it to be done. Thus, to say it is good to love our neighbors is semantically equivalent to saying God Commands us to love our neighbors. Similarly, it is evil to commit murder because God forbids us to murder.

Divine CommandValues • Trust: faith; the belief that God and his commandments are good • Faith: reliance that if He commands it, it is good • Courage: resolution to what God deems is good even if it goes against our values • Commitment: obligation to follow God’s will • Loyalty: consistent allegiance to God’s will • Fortitude: courage to do God’s will

Divine CommandVocabulary • Divine: transcendent or transcendental power • Religion: views established with symbols, beliefs, spirituality, and moral values • Morality: the difference between right and wrong • Moral absolution: the ethical view which states certain actions are absolutely right or wrong

Divine CommandContributors • Augustine (354-430) • Believed ethics to be the pursuit of supreme good, which provides the happiness that all humans are looking for • Claimed the way to obtain this happiness is to love the right objects in the right way and this requires we love God • Thus, according to Augustine, our love of God helps us love everything else in a way proportional to their value (Austin, 2006)

Divine CommandContributors • Immanuel Kant(1724-1804) • Claimed the requirements of morality are too much for us to bear alone so we must believe in the existence of God who will help us live moral lives • Also believed that being moral does not guarantee happiness, so we must believe in a God who will reward the morally righteous with happiness • Did not use his concept of faith as an argument for Divine Command Theory, but contemporaries could use his reasoning to do so (Austin, 2006)

Divine CommandStrengths • Provides an objective metaphysical foundation for morality • Good and bad are relevant to God and our sense of what is good or bad corresponds to God’s sense of good and bad • Those who do evil will be punished and those who live moral lives will be vindicated and even rewarded (Austin, 2006)

Divine CommandCriticisms • Morality based entirely on God’s whim makes morality arbitrary • We are morally blind and have no direct knowledge of good and evil, so have to rely solely upon God and His guidance • It is contingent upon the existence of a person’s religion and beliefs

Divine CommandSulina’s Dilemma According to this theory, Sulina would need to return the item because keeping something that does not rightfully belong to her is stealing; even though it was mistakenly put in her bag, she did not pay for it. One of God’s commandments states “thou shalt not steal”. In other words, God forbids stealing, making it wrong and as a result, Sulina must return the item

Natural Law Theory • Moral perspective: the moral standards which govern human behavior derive from the nature of human beings and the nature of the world • Legal perspective: the authority of legal standards derives from the consideration their moral merit

Natural Law TheoryValues • Justice: conformity to moral rightness in action or attitude • Obedience: compliance with that which is required and subject to rightful restraint or control • Rights: we much respect the rights of others • Responsibility: that for which someone is responsible or answerable • Self-discipline: making ourselves do things when we should, even if we don’t want to • Law abiding: abiding by the rules of society

Ethical Theories