Motivation and Emotion

1. Motivation and Emotion Chapter 7

2. Explaining Motivation • Learning Outcomes • Explain instinct approaches to motivation • Explain drive-reduction approaches to motivation • Explain arousal approaches to motivation • Explain incentive approaches to motivation • Explain cognitive approaches to motivation • Apply Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to motivation • Apply the different approaches to motivation

3. Instinct Approaches • Motivation: the factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms • Instincts: inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned; essential to survival • Instincts provide energy that guides behavior

4. Drive-Reduction Approaches • Drive-reduction approaches: lack of a basic biological requirement (such as water) produces a drive (such as thirst) to obtain that requirement • Drive: motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need • Primary drives • Secondary drives • Homeostasis: the body’s tendency to maintain a steady internal state; underlies primary drives

5. Arousal Approaches • Arousal approaches to motivation: we try to maintain certain levels of stimulation and activity, increasing or reducing them as necessary

6. Incentive Approaches • Incentive approaches to motivation: motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals, or incentives

7. Cognitive Approaches • Cognitive approaches to motivation: motivation is a product of cognitions (thoughts and expectations) • Intrinsic motivation: motivated by your own enjoyment rather than by any concrete reward; intrinsic = internal to you • Extrinsic motivation: doing something for a concrete reward; extrinsic = external to you

8. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Maslow’s model: motivational needs are in a hierarchy; primary needs must be met before higher-order needs can be satisfied • Level 1, Physiological needs/primary drives: needs for water, food, sleep, sex, etc. • Level 2, Safety needs: the need for a safe, secure environment • Level 3, Love and belongingness: the need to obtain and give affection & to be a contributing member of a group or society

9. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Maslow’s Hierarchy (cont’d) • Level 4, Esteem: the need to develop a sense of self-worth from others knowing and valuing your competence • Level 5, Self-actualization: a state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential, each in his or her own unique way

10. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

11. Applying Approaches to Motivation • Which approach best explains motivation? • Any or all of them! Applying multiple approaches in a given situation provides a broader understanding than if we use just one approach alone.

12. Human Needs and Motivation • Learning Outcomes • Describe the biological and social factors that underlie hunger • Summarize the varieties of sexual behavior • Explain how needs related to achievement, affiliation, and power are exhibited

13. The Motivation Behind Hunger • Obesity: body weight that is more than 20 percent above the average weight for a person of a particular height • Body mass index (BMI): based on a ratio of weight to height; BMI > 30 considered obese, BMI between 25 and 30 are overweight • Weight set point: particular level of weight that the body strives to maintain; may be affected by injury to the hypothalamus

14. The Motivation Behind Hunger • Metabolism: the rate at which food is converted to energy and expended by the body • Social factors (such as cultural influences), along with biology, play an important role in eating and hunger

15. Eating Disorders • Anorexia nervosa: a severe eating disorder; people may refuse to eat while denying that their behavior and appearance (which can become skeleton-like) are unusual • Mainly afflicts females between 12 and 40, but can affect men and women of any age • Typically stable background • Can happen when serious dieting gets out of control • About 10% of people with anorexia starve themselves to death

16. Eating Disorders • Bulimia: disorder in which people binge on large quantities of food, followed by efforts to purge the food by vomiting or other means, such as taking laxatives • Causes of eating disorders • Biological: chemical imbalance in hypothalamus or pituitary gland; differences in how the brain processes info about food • Social: society values slenderness and obesity is undesirable; overly demanding parents or other family problems

17. Sexual Motivation • Estrogens and progesterone: female sex hormones produced by the ovaries; greatest production during ovulation (when an egg is released from the ovaries) • Androgens: male sex hormones secreted by the testes

18. Sexual Motivation • Masturbation: sexual self-stimulation • Heterosexuality: sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex • Double standard: the view that premarital sex (sex before marriage) is permissible for males but not for females • Extramarital sex: sexual activity between a married person and someone who is not his or her spouse

19. Sexual Motivation • Homosexuals: those who are sexually attracted to members of their own sex (many prefer terms gay and lesbian) • Bisexuals: those who are sexually attracted to people of the same sex and the other sex • Kinsey considered sexual orientation along a continuum, from “exclusively homosexual” to “exclusively heterosexual”

20. Sexual Motivation • Determinants of sexual orientation • Biological: genetics, hormones, brain structures • Parenting: research does not support the idea that sexual orientation is brought about by child-rearing practices or family dynamics • Most likely a combination of biology and environment

21. Sexual Motivation • Transsexuals: People who believe they were born with the body of the other gender • Transgenderism: includes transsexuals, transvestites (dress in the clothing of the other gender), and others who believe traditional male-female gender classifications do not adequately describe them

22. Need for Achievement • Need for achievement: a stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains satisfaction by striving for and attaining a level of excellence • Measured by the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): series of ambiguous pictures, about which a person is asked to write a story

23. Need for Achievement and Power • Need for affiliation: an interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people • Need for power: a tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others, and to be seen as a powerful individual

24. Understanding Emotional Experiences • Learning Outcomes • Define the range of emotions • Explain the roots of emotions • Emotions: feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior

25. The Range of Emotions

26. The Roots of Emotions • James-Lange theory of emotion: emotions are experienced as a reaction to bodily events occurring as a result of an external situation (bodily changes cause feeling of emotion) • Cannon-Bard theory of emotion: both physiological arousal and emotional experience are produced at the same time by the same nerve stimulus

27. The Roots of Emotions • Schachter-Singer theory of emotion: emotions are determined jointly by a nonspecific kind of physiological arousal and its interpretation, which is based on environmental cues • Contemporary perspectives: specific patterns of biological arousal (such as activating different parts of the brain) seem to be associated with individual emotions