Cultural differences in the perceptions of strong and weak arguments

1. Cultural differences in the perceptions of strong and weak arguments • Jos Hornikx

2. Arbitrationandargumentation Arbitration is a human activityinvolvingreasoningprocesses Partiesandjuriespartlyrely on argumentsto present their cases, weigh the evidence, andsettledisputes Studies underline the importance of strong arguments in deliberation (e.g., Shestowsky& Horowitz, 2004), but whatcharacterizes strong arguments? Evidence: data presented as proof More than 60 years of research in communicationandsocialpsychology “Does evidencefunction the same way in various cultures?” (McCroskey, 1969, p. 176) Universality of reasoning (Mercier, 2011; Mercier& Sperber, 2011)

3. Evidence types Anecdotalevidence: one case Boys’ performance at school canbeimprovedby putting boys next to girls in class. SinceVenkateshGuptafromManali does notsit next toAshwin Paul anymore, but next toSunitha Rai, his performance at school has improved. Statistical evidence: numerical information, more cases Playing slow music in supermarketsraisestheir turnover. The results of a studyamong 138 outlets of different Indian supermarkets show that 77% of these outlets have had a risein their turnover as a result of playing slow music.

4. Evidence types Causalevidence: explanation Listeningtoclassicalmusichelpsstudentstoabsorb a lot of knowledge in a short period of time. Classicalmusicstimulates the identification of repeatingpatternsandintricatestructures, throughwhichanalytical thinking is increasedand a lot of knowledgecanbeabsorbed. Expert evidence: expert backs up Fear of flyingdecreases as a consequence of taking part in a balloon flight. Dr. Trivedi, a specialist in the field of clinicalpsychology at the University of Chennai, underscoresthatfear of flyingdecreases as a consequence of taking part in a balloon flight.

5. Methodological approach • written claims withevidence • claims aboutnovel topics with low involvement • claims have been pretested (in the different countries) • persuasiveness= (claim withevidence) – (claim without evidence) • 5-point scales: largestdifferenceabout .4 • cross-cultural (notintercultural!) • equivalence: back translation, selection of names, universities, etc.

6. Culture andevidence types Culture andargumentation: reasoning? values? Starting point: power distance – expert evidence France – The Netherlands • expert evidenceused more regularly in persuasive leaflets (Hornikx, Starren, & Hoeken, 2003) • expert evidence is more persuasive in France relativetoother types of types (Hornikx & Hoeken, 2007, study 1) • difference in sensitivitytonormativelystrong andweakstatisticaland expert evidence (Hornikx & Hoeken, 2007, study 2)

7. Culture andevidencequality The quality of expert evidencedepends on: • relevant expertise • trustworthiness • externalconsistency Professor Chevalier, a specialist in the field of psychiatry at the University of Toulouse, underscoresthatfear of flyingdecreases as a consequenceof taking part in a balloon flight. Professor Chevalier, a specialist in the field of politics at the University of Toulouse, underscoresthatfear of flyingdecreases as a consequenceof taking part in a balloon flight. Netherlands: psychiatry > politics France: psychiatry = politics

8. Whyinsensitiveto field of expertise? Explanation 1: French didnotelaborateenough Largereffects of evidencequalitywithcentral processing (cf. Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) More critical thinking with incongruent information (Maheswaran & Chaiken, 1991), even forpeoplewith low motivation Incongruent information > mixed evidence Are French peoplesensitivetovariations in expert evidencequalitywhen claims are followedbyevidenceandcounterevidence?

9. Material (Hornikx & Kemperman, in progress) claim + (counter)evidence + (counter)evidence claim Fear of flying decreases as a consequence of taking part in a balloon flight. evidence The results of a study among 264 French suffering from that fear show that 77% of them have seen a decrease in their fear as a consequence of taking part in a balloon flight. However, professor Chevalier, a specialist in the field of psychiatry at the University of Toulouse, underscores that fear of flying does not decrease as a consequence of taking part in a balloon flight. … decrease in their fear as aconsequence of taking part in a balloon flight. However, professor Chevalier, a specialist in the field of politics at the University of Toulouse …

10. Insensitiveto field of expertise

11. Whyinsensitiveto field of expertise? • Explanation 2: cultural-educationalexplanation(Hornikx, 2011) • ““The real keysto the ‘good life’ are obedience, discipline, andstickingto the straight andnarrow” • French were more obedient • More obedience > smaller differencebetweentwoexperts

12. Unpacking culture – anunsuccessfulexample • Dutch-Germancomparison (Hornikx & Ter Haar, in press) • Uncertaintyavoidance > more sensitivetoevidencequality? • Study 1: no support forthisrelationship • No differences on relevant scales: NeedforStructure, Needfor Precision (cf. Smith & Schwartz, 1997) • Germans are insensitivetostatisticalevidencequality • A studyamong381 (53) Dutch students has shownthat74% (38%) of themhad absorbed a lot of knowledge in a short period of time bylisteningtoclassicalmusic. • Study 2: • Germans were sensitive to rules of generalization • However, thisunderstanding was notappliedtoevaluation of claims

13. Conclusion • Argumentsthatonemaybelievetobe strong (weak) maybeless (more) convincing in another culture • Juriesshouldbeawarethattheyevaluateargumentsdifferentlythanpartiesfromotherculturalbackgrounds • Do notoverestimateculturaldifferences in persuasivearguments (andpersuasion in general) • Observeddifferences are hard toexplainempirically

14. Thanksforyour attention! j.hornikx@let.ru.nljoshornikx.ruhosting.nltwitter.com/joshornikx