World Literature: Asia (The Far East)

1. World Literature:Asia (The Far East) A study of tales from around the world. By: Mr. Fallon

2. Some Advice About Notetaking • Summarize with key words, important bits of information, and headings. Do not copy verbatim (word for word). • Write any questions you have with the related content in your notes, and mark your question with a “Q”. • For example, “Q: How long is this powerpoint?” • Write the answer beneath the question when you receive it. • Write any connections or comparisons you make with the related content and mark your connection with a “C”. • For example, “C: These are like the notes I wrote in history; they use same outline and layout.” • For example, “C: Asia’s myths are about the balance of forces like those of Mesopotamia!” • Bonus: If you write at least five questions, and ask at least one of those questions personally, you will receive bonus points. If you write at least five connections and comparisons, you will receive bonus points.

3. One Language to Start Them All • In 1786, British linguist Sir William Jones suggested that many of the languages spoken in Europe and Asia derive from a single language, defined today as the “Proto-Indo-European” language. • Likely started in Mesopotamia, 3000 BCE, spread into Persia and India: (offshoots) • Sanskrit—Ancient Language of India • Old Persian • Possible evidence in Tower of Babel Myth?

4. Three Primary Schools of Philosophy and Religion dominate Asia (500’s BCE-Modern Day) • Confucianism—founded in China by Confucius (551-479 BCE), teaches that order, discipline and social stability are foundations for a good life. • Taoism—(pronounced “Dow-ism”) Founded by Chinese philosopher Laotzu (500’s BCE), advises people to put aside desires and devote themselves to contemplating Tao, the source of unity in the natural world. (What Egyptian “force/goddess” resembles this?) • Buddhism—based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 BCE), arose first in India but later migrated to China and Japan. Buddhism calls on people to renounce their desires and search for enlightenment—the direct, intuitive experience of divine truth.

5. India • Bronze Age--“Indus Valley Civilization” flourishes between 3300-1500 BCE (named after the river that runs through the region). • Iron Age--The Vedic Period is characterized by Indo-Aryan culture associated with the texts of Vedas, sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts, next to those of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Vedic period lasted from about 1500 BCE to 500 BCE, laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society.

6. A Brief Note on Sanskrit • Sanskrit was the main Indo-European language in Northern India. • One of the most fascinating facts about Sanskrit is that by 600 BCE, it had become a form of “frozen” literary language. While everyday speech changed and evolved, the written form of Sanskrit remained in its fixed state for centuries, its grammar and syntax virtually unaffected by time. (Comparison: This would be like if we wrote everything in Old English, the language of the Anglo-Saxons used in the epic Beowulf about 1200 years ago, which is not even recognizable today) • Sanskrit means “perfect speech”; it is considered a “sacred” language, spoken by the gods. As such it was seen as the only appropriate form of expression for the noblest literary works, such as epics, court poems, and dramas.

7. The Four Main Vedic Texts • The class of "Vedic texts" is aggregated around the four canonical Saṃhitās or Vedas proper (turīya), of which three (traya) are related to the performance of yajna (sacrifice) in historical (Iron Age) Vedic religion: (classified as Orthodox) • the Rigveda, containing hymns to be recited by the hotṛ or chief priest; • the Yajurveda, containing formulas to be recited by the adhvaryu or officiating priest; • the Samaveda, containing formulas to be chanted by the udgātṛ. • The fourth is the Atharvaveda, a collection of spells and incantations, stories, predictions, apotropaic charms and some speculative hymns • Buddhism and Jainism, Sikhism and Brahmoism do not accept the authority of the Vedas and are considered Non-orthodox

8. Vedic Period (cont) • Rise of major kingdoms known as the Mahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms Magadha, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha were born in the 6th century BCE, who propagated their Shramanic philosophies among the masses. • After the Rigveda, Aryan society became increasingly agricultural, and was socially organized around the four Varnas (class system). In addition to the principal texts of the Vedas, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins during this period. • Early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the presence of Ochre Coloured Pottery in archaeological findings.

9. Vedic India

10. City-State Republics • In the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many mentioned during Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far back as 1000 BCE. By 500 BCE, sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as the Mahajanapadas — Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Machcha (or Matsya), Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, Kamboja — stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharastra. This period was that of the second major urbanisation in India after the Indus Valley Civilization.

11. The Mahajanapadas (Kingdoms)

12. The Rise of Buddhism and Jainism • It is believed that in 537 BCE, that Siddhartha Gautama attained the state of "enlightenment", and became known as the 'Buddha' - the Enlightened One. • Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Jain Tirthankara according to Jains) propagated a similar theology, that was to later become Jainism. However, Jain orthodoxy believes it predates all known time. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Jain Tirthankars, and an ascetic order similar to the sramana movement. • The Buddha's teachings and Jainism had doctrines inclined toward asceticism, and were preached in Prakrit, which helped them gain acceptance amongst the masses. • They have profoundly influenced practices that Hinduism and Indian spiritual orders are associated with namely, vegetarianism, prohibition of animal slaughter and ahimsa (non-violence). While the geographic impact of Jainism was limited to India, Buddhist nuns and monks eventually spread the teachings of Buddha to Central Asia, East Asia, Tibet, Sri Lanka and South East Asia.

13. Persian and Greek Rule • Much of the northwestern Indian Subcontinent (present day Eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in c. 520 BCE during the reign of Darius the Great, (who came after Cyrus the Great), and who was succeeded by Xerxes. • In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire, reaching the north-west frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied and refused to march further East.

14. State of Affairs in Asia c.323 BCE

15. Influences of Persians and Greeks • The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on Indian civilization. The political systems of the Persians was to influence future forms of governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the Mauryan dynasty during the Maurya Empire (322–185 B.C) • In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism.

16. Hinduism: Unity in Diversity • It is impossible to understand Indian literary tradition—which claims more texts than the ancient Greek and Roman traditions combined—without speaking of the religion followed by the majority of India’s 1,000,000,000+ people: Hinduism. • Hinduism evolved from the beliefs of the Aryans of the Vedic period. More than a religion, Hinduism is a way of life, with a seemingly endless variety of beliefs, rituals and gods. It has no written doctrines or set of rules and no single prophet or religious leader like Christ or Mohammad. Its pantheon consists of innumerable deities by some counts.

17. Trimurti: “Three Forms” • Three deities stand out in Hinduism, called the “Trimurti” (Three Forms): • Brahma the Creator • Vishnu the Protector • Shiva the Destroyer/Preserver. • Shakti, mother goddess, consort to Shiva, is also a central deity today. She also takes several forms, including Kali, who presides over creation and destruction.

18. All One • Why “Three Forms”? Because Hindus believe that all gods—indeed, everything in the universe—are aspects of a single essence, or immortal spirit. • This belief in the ultimate oneness of existence serves as a counterweight to the diversity of India’s enormous population and its many different classes of people and methods of worship.

19. The Epics: the Mahabharata and the Ramayana • These two epics vividly illustrate the teachings of Hinduism, particularly the concepts of dharma, kharma, and reincarnation. • Dharma: Sanskrit “to hold”. English word closest in meaning to it is “religion”. Encompasses concepts such as duty, righteousness, ethics, morality, law, and order. • Everyone is born with a unique dharma, which unfolds based on choices made throughout a person’s lifetime. This is not to say that all choices are necessarily “good” ones, morally or ethically in order to be in accordance with one’s dharma. • Dharma requires that a person fulfill the duties of his or her station in life, however lofty or humble they might be.

20. Caste System, Karma, Reincarnation • A person’s dharma is determined in part by his/her caste(4). Divided from the sacrifice of first man (Rigveda) • Brahmans (head): scholars, priests, teachers • Kshatriyas (torso): rulers and warriors • Vaisyas (thighs): merchants, farmers, artisans • Sudras (feet): menial workers • Untouchables (excluded): disposing dead animals and cleaning up human waste • Kharma: (Sanskrit) action • Reincarnation: transmigration of souls • One’s Actions (Kharma) determines one’s rebirth into the caste system in the next life.

21. Buddhism • Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 BCE); prince who gave up wealth and privilege to search for spiritual peace. • Buddha=“Enlightened One” • Believed that the endless cycle of suffering was caused by desire for earthly goods. • The way to master this desire was to practice yoga (Sanskrit: “union”), a spiritual practice that combines asceticism with meditation, breathing practices, specific postures, and ethical, non-violent behavior. • Buddhism rejects social caste system of Hinduism. • Fades from India by 12th Century CE.

22. Islam, Mongols in India • Islamic Invasions: After conquering Persia, Islamic Caliphate incorporated what is now Pakistan around 720 AD. They were keen to invade India which was the richest classical civilization, with a flourishing international trade and the only known diamond mines in the world. Invasions continued over the next several centuries, resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures that left lasting monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. • Mongol Invasions: A Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur (Tamerlane, Timur the Lame) began a trek starting in 1398 to invade the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi. The Sultan's army was defeated on December 17, 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed and left in ruins; his army fell killing and plundering for three days and nights. He ordered except for the Sayyids, the scholars, and the other Mussulmans, the whole city to be sacked; 100,000 war prisoners, mostly Hindus, were put to death in one day.

23. Mughal (Mogul) Empire • In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which lasted for over 200 years and occupied an area similar to the ancient Maurya Empire. The Mughal Dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a slow decline after 1707 and was finally defeated during the 1857 War of Independence also called the Indian Rebellion of 1857. • This period marked vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority were ruled over by the Mughal emperors; most of them showed religious tolerance, liberally patronizing Hindu culture. • However, later emperors tried to establish complete Muslim dominance and as a result several historical temples were destroyed during this period and taxes imposed on non-Muslims.

24. The Taj Mahal (b. 1653) is a mausoleum located in Agra, India, built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal.

25. Outcome? • Just as the Muslims were not absorbed into Hinduism, neither was India overwhelmed by Islamic culture and religion. • Eventually, in 1947, as tensions built between the two groups, India was partitioned into two states: Pakistan for Muslims, and India for Hindus.

26. China • Has existed longer than any modern civilization today (4,000 years) • Writing developed using an alphabet of more than 3000 characters (ours has 26), in 2nd millenium (2000-1000) BCE.

27. Dynastic Rule • China’s history is characterized by periods of stability enforced by strong central authority, followed by struggles between warring local princes and rival families try to overthrow the ruling family, or dynasty.

28. The Dynasties: Shang • Shang: 1766 BCE-1122 BCE, 1st period of family rule. • Unique system of Chinese writing began to develop • The Chinese alphabet consists of thousands of characters each representing complete words or units of meaning.

30. The Dynasties: Chou (Zhou) • Chou: the longest lasting dynasty, overthrew the Shang, and held power from 1122 BCE-256 BCE. • Established a structure of imperial rule that became the model of government for China until the early 20th century CE. • The Emperor, usually oldest son of ruling family, controlled vast territory by creating a network of local government officials whose advancement depended on their loyalty to the imperial family

32. The Dynasties: Ch’in (Qin) • In 221 BCE, the Ch’in dynasty overpowered the Chou (hence name “China”). Ruled until 206 BCE. • Ch’in rulers connected and fortified their empire by building roads and constructing a 1500 mile defensive wall, known as the Great Wall of China, across northern border. • Philosophy of Legalism, emphasizing strict adherence to a legal code and the absolute power of the emperor, while effective for expanding the empire in a military fashion, proved unworkable for governing it in peace time. The Ch’in presided over the brutal silencing of political opposition, including the event known as the burning and burying of scholars

33. Qin Shi Huang – Ch’in Emperor

34. Great Wall of China

36. And now for something completely unexpected… • http://www.fquick.com/videos/South_Park_City_Wall/2404

37. Qin Shi Huang’s Terra Cotta Army

38. The Dynasties: Han • Han (202 BCE – 220 CE): It was the first dynasty to embrace the philosophy of Confucianism, which became the ideological underpinning of all regimes until the end of imperial China. • Extended the Chinese empire by pushing back the Xiongnu (sometimes identified with the Huns) into the steppes of modern Inner Mongolia, wresting from them the modern areas of Gansu, Ningxia and Qinghai. This enabled the first opening of trading connections between China and the West, the Silk Road. • The first of several Roman embassies to China is recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in 166, and a second one in 284. • Literature, the arts, technology and trade flourished • Succumbed to corruption and infighting.

39. The Dynasties: Tang • On June 18, 618 CE, Gaozu took the throne, and the Tang Dynasty was established, opening a new age of prosperity and innovations in arts and technology. Buddhism, which had gradually been established in China from the first century, became the predominant religion and was adopted by the imperial family and many of the common people. • Chang'an (modern Xi'an), the national capital, is thought to have been the world's largest city at the time. The Tang and the Han are often referred to as the most prosperous periods of Chinese history. • The Tang, like the Han, kept the trade routes open to the west and south and there was extensive trade with distant foreign countries and many foreign merchants settled in China. • The Tang introduced a new system into the Chinese government, called the "Equal Field System". This system gave families land grants from the Emperor based on their needs, not their wealth. • Succumbed to corruption and political infighting by 880.

40. The Dynasties: Sung (Song) • In 960, the Song Dynasty (960-1279) gained power over most of China, starting a period of economic prosperity. • Considered by many to be classical China's high point in science and technology, with innovative scholar-officials such as Su Song (1020-1101) and Shen Kuo (1031-1095). There was court intrigue with the political rivals of the Reformers and Conservatives, led by the chancellors Wang Anshi and Sima Guang, respectively. • By the mid to late 13th century the Chinese had adopted the dogma of Neo-Confucian philosophy formulated by Zhu Xi. There were enormous literary works compiled during the Song Dynasty, such as the historical work of the Zizhi Tongjian. Culture and the arts flourished, with grandiose artworks such as Along the River During Qingming Festival and Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute, while there were great Buddhist painters such as Lin Tinggui.

41. Here come the Mongols… • The Mongols, a warlike, semi-nomadic people from northwestern Asia, conquered Imperial China in the late 12th Century CE. • They were overthrown and Chinese rule resumed with the Ming Dynasty in 1368. • The Ming and later dynasties practiced “isolationism” to limit contact with foreign influences.

42. But they can’t keep them out… • Centuries of foreign rule and influence force imperial authority over Chinese from various nations. • 20th century China witnessed civil war and installation of Communist regime mimicking Chinese history of a strong central authority establishing a period of stability and imperial strength. • Chinese Communism does not equal Russian Communism, as China engages in a relatively free-market economy, and regulates political and media outlets, as well as foreign influences instead.

43. Chinese Religion and Philosophy • Chinese literature and philosophy has been influenced by the three main schools of thought: Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. • Confucius (K’ung Fu-tzu) (551 BCE-479 BCE): 1st great Chinese teacher, since then, profession of teaching is held in great respect. • Teachings are practical and conservative; they emphasize ethical values such as honesty, loyalty, respect for elders, love of learning, and moral restraint. • “Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” – The Confucian Analects.

44. Teaching to the Test – Ancient Chinese Education • To become civil servants, boys had to take a series of tests based on classic texts. • Training began at 3 years old. • By 8 years old, they had learned a thousand basic Chinese written characters. • By 15 years old, they had memorized texts amounting to 431,286 characters. • This = 200 characters / day for six years. • Based entirely on texts of Confucius and books of poetry, documents and rites. • Continued until 1904.

45. Lao-Tzu • Born around 570 BCE. • Wrote the Tao Te Ching. • Was a mystic who believed that less government was better. • Regarded Nature as a great teacher. • Urged people to seek wisdom by turning their backs on their world and contemplating “Tao” – mysterious force that governs and unifies all of nature.

46. Yin and Yang

47. Balance of Opposites • Over their long history, Chinese have endured and risen up from chaos and disaster again and again. • This might be attributed to their perception of life as a process of continual change, in which opposing forces such as heaven and earth, or light and dark, balance one another. • Symbolized in Yin-yang symbol. • Yin: passive, feminine force • Yang: active, masculine force Each contains a “seed” of the other. Offers hope in tough times since it teaches that Evil contains the seed of “Good”.

49. Japan • Japan’s early social structure was based on clan (family) divisions. Each clan consisted of a well-defined hierarchy of classes: • Aristocrats, warriors, priests (top) • Peasants and workers (bottom) • In 4th Century CE, Yamato family was powerful enough to subdue others.

50. Yamato Influence • Admired Chinese culture, political organization and philosophy, and imported these into Japan: • Prince Shotoku: (593-622 CE) Created emperor, imperial bureaucracy, and grand capitol city. • However, in Japan, the emperor was largely just a figurehead.